Условные предложения могут присоединяться к главному и без союза. Это возможно только при наличии вспомогательного глагола, который в таком случае ставится на первое место. Например:
| If I had known it before... | Если бы я знал об этом раньше (но я не знал)... |
| Had I known it before... | |
| If I were less tired... | Если бы я был менее усталым (но я очень устал)... |
| Were I less tired... |
Основная трудность распознавания типов условных предложений состоит в следующем: по-английски мы имеем разные формы для того, что по-русски мы выражаем одинаково. Возьмем русское предложение: Если бы я выиграл пять тысяч, я бы купил автомобиль. Не зная обстановки, в которой сказаны эти слова, вы не сможете точно определить, выражает ли говорящий предположение о будущем или излагает несбывшееся условие в прошлом. Это предложение можно, истолковать двояко: 1) если я когда-либо выиграю 5 тысяч, я куплю автомобиль (предположение о. будущем); 2) если бы я выиграл, я бы купил автомобиль (но я не выиграл и поэтому не купил).
По-английски же эти две мысли выражаются по-разному. Первая мысль выражается условным предложением типа Б, рассмотренным выше:
| If I won If I should win If I were to win Should I win Were I to win | I would (should) buy a car. |
Нереализованное условие в прошлом выражается предложением типа:
| If I had won five thousand roubles, I should have bought a car. | Если бы я выиграл..., я бы купил... (но я не выиграл). |
Мы разобрали основные типы условных предложений, но в литературе могут встречаться и сочетания этих типов.
Прочтите и переведите:
Тип А:
If you need a dictionary, go to the library. I shall go immediately unless you want me to wait. We shall wait here if you don't mind. If he was ill, why didn't he lie down? I can conduct the observation provided you help [me. If I find that letter, I shall show it to you. If I meet him, I shall invite him. If the children are playing quietly, don't disturb them.
Тип Б:
If I met him again, I could ask him about it. Do you think he would be angry if I asked him to help me? Would they come, if we invited them? Should it be necessary, we could make another test. If he should ask you, tell him no news has been received.
Tun B:
If he were older, he could take that job. If I were you, I should make another experiment. He could not translate that story even if he tried. If they knew the answer the teacher would be happy. If John were there, I should immediately go to him. If I knew his native language, I should answer him.
Тип Г:
If we had known about your experiments, the letter would not have been sent. Had the road been better, we should not have been late. If John had been here, we should have asked him. Had I known his native language, I should have answered him.
УПРАЖНЕНИЕ В ЧТЕНИИ
Прочтите первый абзац данного ниже текста, установите правильное чтение каждого слова. Соединенные дужками слова должны читаться слитно. Например: a‿claim [q'kleIm], of‿land [qv'lxnd].
Прочтите и переведите текст:
THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA
(continued)
II
A ‿ claim was a‿piece of‿land a‿few feet square. Each man was‿ allowed to‿have only one. There he‿might work as‿long as‿he‿ wished. No‿one dared to‿work upon ‿another's claim. If he‿tried to‿do so, he‿was brought before a‿ rough court of‿miners and severely punished.
Each miner had his own tent or cabin and had to do his own cooking, or sometimes two lived together. The only cooking implements were a frying-pan and a c offee-po t. In the early days there were few women or children at the mines.
At the camps the only amusements provided (1) were drinking and gambling.
It was a rough life. The men had to go armed to protect themselves. Fighting was common (2), and men were often killed.
After the first year few of the gold-diggers became rich. The gold that lay on the top of the ground or near the surface had been dug out, and the men had no machinery for deep digging. Many grew discouraged and turned to other work.
When gold was first discovered, the small towns in California were quickly emptied of people. But soon it was found that men could often make more money (3) in the towns than they could in the mines.
The towns were made up mainly of canvas tents, which were used as hotels, and gambling houses. The streets were always deep in dust or mud. When these streets grew so bad that men were drowned by falling into pools of water, and horses sank out of sight (4) in the mud, the townspeople at last had to cover them with planks laid side by side (5).
California drew up its own constitution and was admitted later to the Union as a state (6). The first great gold rush was soon over.
После этого текста, рассказывающего об истории горнорудного дела в США, прочтите статью о современных условиях работы американских горняков.
MINE INSPECTORS HOLD COMPANY GUILTY IN DEATH OF SIX WORKERS
Federal Bureau of Mine inspectors (7) hold the Bethlehem Mines Corporation, a subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation (8), guilty in the death of six workers in an explosion of accumulated gas in a Marianna, Pa., (9) mine last Sept. 23.
The group, together with the five who escaped, had been checking the ventilating system. Had the full working force been on the job, dozens would have lost their lives.
The four inspectors charge that the mine management had received a written report the day before the explosion, warning that accumulated gas had created a dangerous condition. They found the explosion had been set off by an electric spark from the power line.
The mine is classified as "gassy" by both federal and state authorities. This is synonymous with "very dangerous".
From The Worker
Примечания
(1) the only amusements provided = the only amusements that were provided — единственными (имевшимися) развлечениями были.... Only здесь значит единственный. Provided — зд. причастие II от глагола provide снабжать, обеспечивать. Определение после определяемого слова (amusements provided) — явление сравнительно редкое в английском языке. См. также союз provided в разделе об условных предложениях.
(2) fighting was common — драки были обычным явлением. Fighting за. — герундий (урок 13).
(3) make money — зарабатывать деньги
(4) sank out of sight — погружались с головой («скрывались из виду» — см. аналогичное выражение в тексте урока 19)
(5) laid side by side — уложенными рядами. Side by side буквально значит бок о бок.
(6) admitted... as a state — принята в Союз (США) в качестве штата
(7) Federal Bureau of Mine inspectors — инспекторы федерального бюро горнорудной промышленности. Federal федеральный в США означает государственный. Ср. ниже both federal and state authorities представители властей как штата (state), так и государства (federal).
(8) Bethlehem Steel Corporation — Бетлехемская Стальная Корпорация — вторая по величине монополия в области металлургической промышленности США
(9) Marianna, Pa (= Pennsylvania) — г. Марианна, штат Пенсильвания
Новые слова
accumulate [q'kju:mjuleIt] v накапливать, аккумулировать
admit [qd'mIt] v допускать, впускать, принимать (в состав)
allow [q'lau] v позволять, разрешать, допускать
amusement [q'mju:zmqnt] n развлечение
armed ['Q:rmd] а вооруженный
authority [O:'TOrItI] n власть, авторитет
be over ['quvq] кончиться
cabin ['kxbIn] n хижина
camp [kxmp] n лагерь
canvas ['kxnvqs] n холст, парусина, брезент
charge [CQ:G] v обвинять
check [Cek] v проверять
claim [kleIm] n требование, заявка; зд. заимка
classify ['klxsIfaI] v классифицировать
coffee-pot ['kOfIpOt] n кофейник
constitution ["kOnstI'tju:S(q) n] n конституция
cooking [kukIN] n приготовление пищи, стряпня
court [kO:t] n суд; двор, корт
dare [dFq] v сметь
discourage [dIs'kArIG] v обескураживать, отбивать охоту
draw [drO:], drew [dru:], drawn [drO:n] v тащить, тянуть; чертить, рисовать;
draw up составлять (проект, документ)
drown [draun] v тонуть, топить
empty ['emptI] v опорожнять, пустеть
explosion [Iks'plquZ(q) n] n взрыв
force [fO:s] [fo:s] n сила
fry [fraI] [frai] v жарить; frying-pann сковорода
gamble ['gxmbl] v играть в азартные игры; gambling house игорный дом
gassy ['gxsI] а наполненный газом
guil t y ['gIltI] а виновный; hold guil t y считать виновным
hotel [hqu'tel] n гостиница, отель
implement ['ImplImqnt] 'implimont] n орудие
lay [leI], laid [leId], laid v класть
machinery [mq'SI(:) nqrI] n мaшины, оборудование
management ['mxnIGmqnt] п управление, руководство
mud [mAd] п грязь, слякоть
plank [plxNk] n доска, планка
pool [pu:l] n лужа, пруд, бассейн
pot [pOt] n горшок, котелок
provide provide ['pAnIS] v предоставлять
punish ['pAnIS] v наказывать
rough [rAf] а грубый, примитивный
severely [sI'vIqlI] adv сурово
sink [sINk], sank [sxNk], sunk [sANk] v погружать(ся)
spark [spQ:k] n искра
steel [sti:l] [stfcl] n сталь
subsidiary [sqb'sIdjqrI] n филиал
synonymous [sI'nOnImqs] а синонимический, означающий одно и то же
tent [tent] n палатка, тент
townspeople ['taunz"pi:pl] n горожане
union ['ju:njqn] n союз
upon [ [q'pOn] e'pon] prp на (= on)
ventilate ['ventIleIt] v вентилировать
warn [wO:n] v предупреждать
wish [wIS] v желать
Количество изученных слов
В уроках 6, 10, 15 и 20 мы подсчитывали количество изученных вами слов. Соответственно их было сначала около 150, потом стало 350, 600 и 850. В уроках 21—25 вы узнали еще около 250 слов. Общее количество? Нет, не 1100 слов, как следует из арифметического подсчета, а по крайней мере 2000. Чем же объясняется этот приятный сюрприз? Да тем, что вы на протяжении курса систематически знакомились со способами словообразования в английском языке, и это по меньшей мере удваивает количество понятных вам слов. Разберем несколько примеров, взятых из слов урока 25.
Глагол to accumulate накоплять при знании суффиксов -ion и -or сразу делает понятными слова accumulation накопление и accumulator аккумулятор.
Глагол to admit допускать, признавать, принимать в состав при знании суффиксов -ion, -ance и префикса поп- делает понятными слова admission признание, допущение, admittance допуск, принятие, non-admittance непринятие (в состав чего-л.).
Выделив суффикс -ment в слове amusement развлечение, мы поймем, что to amuse значит развлекать, а в контексте сможем догадаться, что an amusing story значит занятная история.
Слово armed вооруженный легко приведет нас к словам to arm вооружать, unarmed невооруженный, disarmed разоруженный, armament вооружение, disarmament разоружение, конечно при условии, что мы помним соответствующие суффиксы и приставки.
От punish наказывать образуется punishment наказание; management управление дает возможность определить значение слов to manage управлять, a manager управляющий.
Слово classify классифицировать ведет к группе classification, classified, unclassified. Глагол to ventilate делает понятными слова ventilation, ventilator и т. д.
Из наречия severely сурово можно выделить прилагательное severe суровый, а от него образовать существительное severity суровость.
Надо также упомянуть огромное количество слов, образуемых путем конверсии и словосложения.
Среди слов урока 25 можно найти конверсию в словах empty v опорожнять и а пустой; camp n лагерь и v располагаться лагерем; charge v обвинять и п обвинение; wish v желать и п желание и др.
Примером сложения известных вам слов может быть слово townspeople горожане, но можно образовать и новые слова от тех, что вы узнали в уроке. Например, зная слова to wish желать и well хорошо, можно понять и слово well-wisher доброжелатель.
Слова, встречавшиеся в разделах «Дополнительный материал для устной речи» и «Reading», мы не принимаем во внимание при подсчете слов» но и без них вы должны теперь знать, с учетом средств словообразования,
Около 2000 слов
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ
I. Следующие условные предложения распределите на две группы: с реальным условней (тип А) и с нереальным условней, относящимся к настоящему (тип В). Переведите предложения:
I shall close the window if you allow. The door will not open unless you press the button. We can go now if you wish. If you check the data, you will find everything in order. If I allowed my children to do what they like, they would not go to bed in time. We can make the test provided the management supplies us with materials. If these words were synonymous, you could use either of them. They would buy those implements if they needed them. If you want to draw, you need better pencils. If he were guilty, he would not dare to come. He will not run away unless he is guilty.
2. Следующие предложения распределите на две группы: с нереальным условием в отношении настоящего (тип В) и с нереализованным условием в отношении прошедшего (тип Г). Переведите предложения:
If you knew him better, you would not admit, him into your house. Had I known the facts better, I should have allowed you to make a new test. I should not have mentioned it if my friends had not warned me. If he were dead, I should be sorry. If the bottle were empty, we could use it for oil. Do you think she would have spoken better if she had not been so tired? If the ventilating system had been better, the management of the American mine would not have been held guilty in the death of six miners.
3. Переведите на русский язык условные предложения, содержащие предположение (тип Б):
It would be better if you admitted your mistake. If you classified the data, fewer tests would be needed. If they listened to us, we could warn them. They might attack us if they dared.
4. Переведите на русский язык:
I wish I could go to Leningrad. I wish it were so. I wish he were alive. You shouldn't allow your children to play so late. One should admit one's mistakes. Young girls should learn cooking.
5. Из новых слов урока выберите слова со звуками [о], [ж], [ai]; распределите их на отдельные колонки и прочтите их вслух. Проверьте, помните ли вы значение этих слов.
6. Из текстов выпишите все нестандартные глаголы и повторите их основные формы (см. таблицу приложение №3).
7. Прочтите вслух несколько раз популярное в Англии шуточное стихотворение:
IF ALL WERE ONE
If all the seas were one sea,
What a great sea that would be! And if all the trees were one tree,
What a great tree that would be! And if all the axes were one axe,
And if all the men were one man,
And if a great man took the great axe,
And cut down the great tree, And let it fall into the great sea,
What a great splash that would be! (splash — всплеск)
КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА
I. В каждом тексте урока найдите по условному предложению, определите его тип и переведите.
II. Следующие предложения представляют собой реальное условие (тип А). Переведите их. Превратите предложения 1, 4 и 6 в предложения с нереализованным условием в прошлом (тип Г) и переведите снова:
1. If the ground is soft, our work will be easy. 2. We shall be late unless we go much faster. 3. Provided we get the implements, We shall check the power line. 4. If you agree, we shall warn the management. 5. If you allow me, I shall go to a hotel. 6. If the wind increases, I may stay at home.
III. Переведите следующие предложения:
If I went away, it was because I did not like the hotel. If they are found guilty, will they be severely punished? If you went there, there would be many changes. If you admitted your mistake, you did well. If he were really ill, he would not be able to live in a canvas tent. If we go to the theatre tonight, we shall see a very good play. If I told you the truth, you would not like it. Even if you had not agreed, it would have made no difference at all. Had you made this experiment last year, everybody would have laughed at you. The results are remarkable provided all the figures have been checked. Had I known what to do, I should have saved' much time. If he should ask, tell him no answer has been received.
IV. Проанализируйте новые слова урока и выпишите: 1) не менее 12 слов с международными корнями, встречающимися и в русском языке; 2) сложные слова; 3) нестандартные глаголы. Назовите три основные формы глаголов to lie лежать и to lay класть.
V. Переведите письменно второй — четвертый абзацы 2-го текста урока.
VI. Переведите английские слова:
admit, spark, allow, punish, authority, to draw, so, lay, guilty, empty, rough, armed, court, union, wish, charge, severely, be, over, hotel, check, drown, dry, mud, camp, to sink, warn, implement, pool, provided, claim, accumulate, management
VII. Назовите английские слова, означающие:
позволять, вооруженный, лагерь, чертить, класть, союз, суд, желать, предупреждать, проверять, власть
Повторение
Перечитайте тексты уроков 13-23, вспоминая забытые слова Повторите все, относящееся к предложению в уроках 3, 8, 9 15, 16, 17. Проверьте, как вы знаете служебные слова по Списку на с. 371-380 (приложение №4) и по следующему рисунку:
READING
QUOTATION
The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the world, unite!
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Manifesto of the Communist Party
A MINER FROM MICHIGAN
The star of a new film made in the Ukraine is a former American miner who became a Soviet mineworker in 1922.
John Pinter began work in 1910 at copper and coal mines in Michigan and Illinois.
An active trade-union member he joined the American Socialist Patry in 1916, and three years later, the United States-Canadian Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia.
In 1922 he was one of 32 American miners who answered Lenin's call to come and help the young Soviet state.
He started work at Lidiyevka mine in the Ukraine and became a team leader (бригадир). Later he became manager of two mines, took p rt in the testing of the first Soviet-made coal-cutter (врубовая машина), and worked as an engineer at a design institute.
He married in the USSR and brought up (воспитал) two sons and two daughters, all of whom got a good education and work in the Ukraine.
From Soviet Weekly
THEY ALL GO TO THE PAMIRS
Afore and more people — physicists, seismologists (сейсмологи), archaeologists (археологи) and other scientists — are visiting the Pamirs, one of the earth's highest mountain systems.
The Pamirs are a natural laboratory for the study of cosmic radiation, which is being studied at the high mountain research camp at Ak-Akhrar, nearly 3.5 miles above sea level.
Tadjikistan is also the most earthquake prone (подверженный) part of the Soviet Union. There are weak underground tremors practically every day; middling (средний) ones about once a year; severe ones every few years; and really destructive ones (разрушительный) every few decades (десятилетия)'.
The Pamirs are extremely rich in power resources, for they are the source of powerful mountain rivers like the Vakhsh.
Archaeologists recently made an amazing discovery in the Pamirs — the remains (остатки) of a 10-12th century mining town, high above the clouds.
This town is 12,540 feet above sea level, and graves have been found containing a great quantity of things which throw much light on the history of the area.
Botanists find the Pamirs highly interesting, and recently ten expeditions have been working in different parts of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region. One of the world's highest botanical gardens is just outside Khorog, capital of the region. Its plan includes study of medicinal herbs (лечебные травы) and observation of the effect of ultra-violet rays on the growth of trees and other plants.
The Pamirs are the largest glacial (ледовый) zone in the USSR, so naturally glaciologists (гляциологи) find them interesting. There are more than a thousand glaciers (ледники), one of which, the Fedchenko, is more than 44 miles long.
Hydrographers study the snow cover on the mountains, for agriculture in Central Asia depends on the amount of water in the mountains brought down by its chief rivers, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya.
Finally, the Pamirs have a particular interest for students of languages. The area is a kind of linguistic (лингвистический) museum in which many "dead" Iranian languages still live.
From Soviet Weekly
EXPERIENCE
Experience is a fine teacher, it's true,
But here is what makes me burn (1):
Experience is always teaching me
Things I'd rather not learn.
Ethel Wegert
Примечание
(1) what makes me burn — что меня злит
Урок двадцать шестой
Перевод с английского языка на русский
Вы заканчиваете прохождение курса, цель которого состоит в том, чтобы научиться читать и переводить научную и техническую литературу. Указания по переводу вы получали на протяжении всего курса: особенно существенны указания о переводе предложений с глаголами в страдательном залоге, предложений, в которых встречается согласование времен, а также предложений с герундиями, причастиями, инфинитивами, с бессоюзным подчинением придаточных предложений. В случае необходимости повторите соответствующие разделы.
Кроме того, с переводом тесно связаны разделы о многозначности слов (урок 7), об определениях, выраженных существительными (урок 5), и особенно о работе с англо-русским словарем (урок 21).
В уроке 21 даются довольно подробные указания о том, как нужно подходить к анализу предложения, содержащего неизвестные слова, и как выбирать из словаря нужное значение данного слова. Перечитайте внимательно этот раздел.
Предположим, что вам поручили перевести с английского языка на русский какую-либо статью по, вашей специальности. Мы выделяем слово «вашей» потому, что перевести специальную статью по той отрасли знания, в которой слабо разбираешься, дело весьма рискованное: почти наверняка можно сказать, что в переводе будут и ошибки, и непонятные для читающего места. Надо или не брать на себя перевод таких статей или делать его совместно со специалистом данного дела.
Итак, вы приступаете к переводу статьи, содержание которой связано с вашей специальностью. С чего начать?
Чтобы сделать хороший перевод, надо, во-первых, правильно понять текст; во-вторых, передать его как можно более точно средствами русского языка; в-третьих, сделать перевод максимально ясным, предотвратить возникновение сомнений у читателя.
Этим трем требованиям к переводу соответствуют три основных этапа работы над ним: 1) разбор текста; 2)перевод его; 3) стилистическая отделка перевода.
Под разбором текста понимается не грамматический анализ предложения (он является лишь одним из моментов такого разбора), а установление точного значения всех элементов переводимого текста. Не начинайте свою работу прямо с перевода первого предложения. Прочтите всю статью внимательно. с начала до конца, чтобы уяснить ее основное содержание. Отметьте трудные места. Потом перечитайте еще раз первый отрезок (абзац, параграф) и проанализируйте внимательно каждое предложение. Найдите в словаре все необходимые слова и выберите нужное значение слова, руководствуясь общим смыслом статьи, а также другими моментами, о которых мы говорили в уроке 21. Весьма вероятно, что при этом вам понадобится не только общий англо-русский словарь, но и специальные словари (технические, энциклопедические, толковые, словари условных сокращений и т. п.).
Только после этого приступайте к переводу абзаца. Следите прежде всего за смыслом высказывания, старайтесь передать его как можно точнее, не прибавляя от себя никаких уточнений или оценок. (Если такая оценка или уточнение необходимы, сделайте их в примечании «от переводчика».) Не переводите слово за словом: прочтите предложение, уясните себе смысл и передайте его на русском языке, строя русское предложение так, как это требуется согласно правилам русского языка. Например, не пишите он покачал своей головой, так как покачать чужой головой нельзя, и по-русски такое уточнение излишне; не пишите моя жена и я были в театре, это звучит не по-русски. Следует сказать мы с женой были в театре, хотя по-английски and I всегда ставится в конце перечисляемых лиц, по соображениям учтивости.
Пользуйтесь большей свободой расстановки слов в предложении, предоставляемой русским языком. Вы знаете еще из урока 3, что английский язык, в котором отношения между словами выражаются преимущественно предлогами и расстановкой слов в предложении, имеет относительно твердый порядок слов. Русский язык, имеющий обширную систему падежных окончаний, гораздо более гибок, и следует пользоваться этой гибкостью для большей ясности перевода. Не забывайте о падежах еше и в другом смысле. Начинающие переводчики нередко делают следующую элементарную ошибку. Возьмем для примера предложение: She loved and trusted her friend. Неопытный переводчик нередко пишет: Она любила а доверяла своему другу, забывая о том, что любить требует дополнения в винительном падеже (любить кого? что?), а доверять сочетается с дополнением в дательном падеже (доверять кому? чему?). Поэтому следовало написать: Она любила своего друга и доверят ему. Особенно легко впасть в такую ошибку в длинном предложении.
Важным элементом работы над переводом является также выяснение так называемых реалий. Под реалиями понимаются детали быта, истории, государственного устройства страны. Например, в тексте урока 2G вам встретилось словосочетание Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Чтобы правильно перевести его, надо установить, что это за учреждение (см. примечание 3 к этому тексту). Другим примером может служить словосочетание the Underground Railroad в уроке 18. При дословном переводе мы получаем подземная железная дорога, и у нас возникает искушение употребить в переводе слово метро. Если вы помните этот текст, вы знаете, что the Underground Railroad в середине прошлого века в Америке это не подземная, не железная и даже не дорога, а система тайной переправки негров-рабов из южных штатов в северные.
Затруднения могут возникнуть при переводе различного рода фразеологических, т.е. более или менее устойчивых словосочетаний. Например, to take part принимать участие, to hold a meeting проводить собрание, a meeting was held собрание состоялось, a good deal много, how do you do здравствуйте. Самое важное — установить точное значение этих словосочетаний. Повторяем свой совет! дочитывайте до конца каждую статью в словаре и помните, что фразеология в нем дается после знака О. За дальнейшими справками обращайтесь к специальному фразеологическому словарю А. В. Кунина.
Важно устанавливать точно значение условных сокращений. Самые употребительные даются в англорусских словарях, обычно в приложении. За расшифровкой других надо обращаться к специальному словарю сокращенных наименований и к энциклопедии. Например, сокращение F,R.$. нельзя передать простоя транслитерацией Ф.Р.С., так как она ровно ничего не даст русскому читателю. Словарь сокращений поможет расшифровать это сокращение: Fellow of the Royal Society и даже перевести его: член Королевского общества, во только толковый словарь или энциклопедия помогут вам установить, что это традиционное название членов английской академии наук, которая называется the Royal Society.
Необходимо следить и за написанием собственных имен, не допуская никакой «отсебятины»: географические имена следует проверять по указателю или атласу, собственные имена по энциклопедии или по газетам. Например, если в статье встретятся собственные имена Sean и Leicester, то нельзя писать «с потолка» Сеан и Лейсестер; проверив, о чем и о ком идет речь, нужно написать Шон, Лестер.
После того как вы разберете и переведете таким образом статью (имеется в виду статья не длиннее 8-10 страниц), можно приступить к отделке перевода с литературной стороны. Для этого отложите английский оригинал в сторону и прочтите свой перевод, стараясь взглянуть на него глазами читателя, не знающего английского языка. Задавайте себе вопросы: ясно ли выражена эта мысль?, что хочет сказать автор? Вы увидите, что некоторые предложения могут оказаться не совсем ясными, слишком тяжелыми, а иногда и допускающими двойное толкование, что особенно недопустимо в научной статье. (Разумеется, если двусмысленность возникла в результате вашего перевода, а не содержится в самой статье.) Установите, хорошо ли читается перевод, нет ли тяжелых, нерусских оборотов, назойливого повторения слов типа который, чтобы и т. п.
И, наконец, заключительным этапом работы над переводом является сверка с оригиналом, чтобы установить отсутствие пропусков и отхода от оригинала, который мог возникнуть в процессе литературной обработки.
Для работы над переводом вам будут нужны словари. В первую очередь, это англо-русский словарь под редакцией В. К. Мюллера. Затем нужны словари английских и американских сокращений, а также словари русской транскрипции географических наименований США и Британских островов. Полезно иметь и фразеологический словарь (автор А. В. Кунин).
Кроме того, вам понадобится англо-русский словарь по вашей специальности. Таких словарей издано множество, почти по всем отраслям науки и техники (геологический, медицинский, строительный, военный, ядерный, лесотехнический, сельскохозяйственный и многие другие).
В этом заключительном уроке вместо раздела Reading дается ряд текстов для чтения и перевода, письменного или устного. Выбирайте из них те, которые соответствуют вашей специальности и кругу интересов. Новые слова, словосочетания и сокращения, которые встречаются в этих текстах, отыскивайте в общих и специальных англо-русских словарях.
Сделайте переводы, чтобы проверить, как вы научились работать со словарями и выходить из трудных положений, в которые постоянно попадают переводчики, особенно начинающие.
IS THERE A TENTH PLANET?
Is there an undiscovered tenth planet circling the Sun, as big as Earth?
Many Leningrad astronomers believe so. Their opinion is based on a complicated mathematical analysis of the flight trajectory of a comet known in the astronomical catalogues under the index number of 1862-3.
The comet's orbit seems to be distorted by a large unknown gravitational centre.
If, as they think, it is a planet, it would have a diameter of 5,000 to 7,500 miles and a similar mass and volume as Earth. It would be very much farther out, however — circling the Sun at a distance of about 5,000 million miles, some 54 times the distance of Earth from the Sun.
If the orbit coincides with the one calculated, it will be certain proof of the existence of the unknown planet.
From Soviet Weekly
MYSTERY OF LAKE SOLVED
One of the mysteries of Lake Balkhash, in eastern Kazakhstan, has been cleared up. This salt lake, as large as half a dozen English counties, always stays at the same level, though it stands in a desert which rarely gets any rain and is fed by only a few surface rivers.
It has now been discovered that there are, however, huge rivers underground.
The largest of them carries some 176,000 million gallons a year.
From Soviet Weekly
HIPPO WAS TEN MILLION YEARS OLD
Remains of an extinct hippopotamus have been discovered in the Gobi desert by a party of Soviet and Mongolian palaeontologists.
This is the first such discovery in the Gob i — hitherto such fossils have been discovered only in North America. The Gobi hippo lived about seven to ten million years ago. At that time the Gobi desert was a hot marshy plain covered with rich vegetation.
From Soviet Weekly
THE LEGEND
A legend has long been current that the town of Yangikent in the Syr-Darya delta in Central Asia was abandoned by its inhabitants because of a plague of snakes.
The ruins of the town were first discovered by Russian travellers in 1741, but there was no clue to why it had been abandoned. There were no traces of conquest. The most recent tombstones were dated 1362.
From Soviet Weekly
GRAVEYARD OF GIANTS
A rich grave, almost 5,000 years old, has been found inside a hill in the Northern Caucasus.
It is made of slabs of volcanic rock, some of them weighing over a ton.
It contained the bodies of a man and a woman, together with household utensils and golden ornaments and jewellery, possibly of Sarmatian and Hunnish origin.
One of the most interesting points was the height of theman: oyer 7 ft 2 1/2 in.
He would have been a giant today, let alone 5,000 years ago, when most researchers suggest that men and women were generally very much shorter than at present.
From Soviet Weekly
ROBOT ZAAN SORTS OUT THE REJECTS
A robot recruit to British industry was shown to the public in London.
The creature's name is Zaan, and its talent is for sorting out small objects by their colour. In particular, it is designed for the food industry to pick out foreign bodies and sub-standard candidates from rivers of beans or nuts or potato flakes. It can separate rejects at the rate of 200 rejects a second.
This sort of work has been done in the past by four or five men sitting alongside a conveyor belt picking out tiny peanuts or bad fried potato flakes from satisfactory ones. Men can pick out rejects at a rate of about one a second; it is tedious work. It costs £ 50 a ton to sort dehydrated food flakes by hand.
There are machines which can sort small objects by size and shape, for instance rejecting a bean with a maggot hole which is detected by intelligent needles. But the Zaan Colour Sorter inspects the small particles with photo-electric eyes and casts out any which are the wrong colour or the wrong brightness.
Unlike human sorters, the machine is unaffected by emotional problems, fatigue, eye-strain, the tea-break, or the conversation next door. The inventors claim that it is cheaper, more hygienic, and more accurate than traditional methods of sorting.
From The Times
CANCER STUDY
The mechanism by which cancer spreads from one place in the body to many, has been the subject of intensive research by scientists for many years. What may be an answer to that question — and a suggestion as to how metastasis might be inhibited — came from the Institute for Cancer Research.
Speculation on how cancer spreads throughout the body has included the possibilities that it does so through the migration of whole malignant cells from the primary tumor mass, or through viruses that are released from dying cancer cells.
The report in the journal Science suggests a third possibility. This is that cancer ceils or viruses leak their genes — in the form of deoxyrebonucleic acid, or DNA — into the bloodstream, and the DNA then travels to places where it invades normal cells and transforms them to malignant ones.
To test this hypothesis scientists injected mice with DNA from polyoma cancer virus and from a pneumococcal bacterium and compared the results.
They found that DNA from tumor viruses was much more resistant to body defences than the bacterial DNA. The reason for this, they said, may have had something to do with the closed-ring form of the tumor-type DNA molecules. They said their results indicated that this DNA could still produce its cancerous effects.
Thus, the report said that "tumor-inducing DNA can be transported in biologically active form from one part of the body to another."
From The New York Times
MANIPULATING THE BRAIN
Some persons were disturbed last week over a report of experiments in which the behavior of animals and people was influenced by electrical stimulation of selected regions of their brains.
According to the report, weak currents made to flow through electrodes implanted in the brains of monkeys and cats enabled scientists to "play" the animals like little electronic toys. They yawned, climbed, ran, turned, slept, mated and changed their emotional states from passivity to rage and vice versa, all on electrical command.
In one of the most spectacular experiments, a Spanish fighting bull was stopped in full charge by a stimulus radioed to an electrode implanted in its brain, which inhibited aggressiveness.
People, too, have undergone such stimulations in the course of diagnosis and therapy for severe cases of epilepsy. Electrical stimulation of certain regions of their brains have produced feelings of intense pleasure and of severe anxiety, a loss of ability to think or express themselves, a sudden increase in word output and profound feelings of friendliness.
The scientist who reported these findings was Dr. Jose Delgado of Yale University's School of Medicine. In a lecture, Dr. Delgado discussed some aspects of this work that might worry persons outside this field of research.
He emphasized, first, that the implantation of the electrodes in the brain and the passage of weak currents through them neither hurts (brain tissue is insensitive) nor causes any functional damage.
Such studies, Dr. Delgado believes, may enable scientists to discover the "cerebral basis of anxiety, pleasure, aggression and other mental functions, which we could influence in their development and manifestation through electrical stimulations, drugs, surgery and especially by means of more scientifically programmed education."
Dr. Delgado believes that control of human behavior on a large scale would not work because the effect of a stimulus can be changed or even overridden by the subject's own desires, emotions, etc. This has been shown in experiments on both animals and people. For example, monkeys in which aggressive behavior was electrically stimulated did not just attack any other member of the colony, but made "intelligent" attacks only on rivals, sparing their "friends".
Dr. Delgado thinks it will be necessary to develop new theories and concepts to explain the biological bases of social and anti-social behavior. These, he said, "for the first time in history can be explored in the conscious brain".
From The New York Times
FISH STORY
A special kind of fishing expedition was organized in Ohio. Its goal was to collect specimens, most of them known as placoderms, that lived some 300 million years ago.
What had brought about the project was the cutting of a highway into Cleveland. Giant earth-moving machines would cut through a formation of world-wide fame, the Cleveland shale. For more than a century it had been known as a rich source of fossil fish from the Devonian period. Specimens, collected where rivers had cut through the shale, were prized possessions of the British Museum in London, the American Museum of Natural History in New York and other centres.
Cleveland's Museum of Natural History conducted the new hunt which, it was hoped, would provide the first complete remains of fossil fish that mark nature's initial experiment with movable jaws. Some of these species had been partially reconstructed into creatures of frightening appearance.
From The New York Times
SCIENTISTS STUDY NATURE PARKS
Special nature reserves are being created in three.areas of the Soviet Union — in the forests round Moscow, the south Russian steppe and the Kara-Kum desert — for observation of changes in the earth, air and water.
All changes brought about by human activity will be recorded and studied with a view to preventing man-made ecological upsets.
The Soviet Union conducts such studies with the other socialist countries and a number of western ones.
From Soviet Weekly
TRAINS HALTED BY PROTEST
Eastern region rail services were halted last night after drivers stopped work in sympathy with a driver who was dismissed.
The driver, who is based in Leeds, was acting in line with a decision by Eastern Region staff not to implement changes in working schedules arising from British Rail's economy measures.
After refusing to take out a train in accordance with a new schedule, he was sent home, and 400 drivers at the Leeds Holbeck depot decided to stop work until he was allowed to start work again. The action was supported by drivers in the London area.
On the Southern Region, the National Union of Rail-waymen is recommending members to stop work for part of Thursday afternoon to coincide with the funeral of a guard (зд. проводник) who was stabbed to death.
From Morning Star
TIDAL WAVE EXPERTS WORKING TOGETHER
Experts from the Soviet Union, the United States and Japan have left Vladivostok aboard the research vessel Pegasus to study tsunami — the devastating tidal waves produced by undersea earthquakes in the Pacific.
There is regular exchange of information between the tsunami study centres in Sakhalin and Honolulu. Sakhalin transmits data from observers in Kamchatka and the Kuril islands. These He in a zone where four-fifths of all earthquakes in the world occur. These earthquakes sometimes originate only 100-125 miles from Soviet shores, a distance a tidal wave can cover in 20-30 minutes.
But Soviet stations give warning of possible danger within seconds of the quake.
From Soviet Weekly
NORTH SEA OIL IS POLLUTING THE BALTIC
The oily waters of the North Sea are polluting the Baltic.
This is the verdict of studies conducted by expeditions aboard the research ship Oceanograph. The waters of the North Sea now contain far greater amounts of harmful substances, particularly oil and oil products.
In the past the picture was quite the reverse. The currents passing through the Skagerrak and Kattegat brought oxygen into the Baltic and served as a ventilator for its waters at great depths.
The pollution of the North Sea has been caused by the rapid increase in oil extraction there. Large quantities of oil have escaped on to the northern European, particularly Scandinavian, continental shelf.
Urgent and efficient measures are needed to decrease the quantities of harmful waste thrown into the sea. All the states of northern Europe would agree with that, of course, but many aspects of the problem remain unsolved.
So far as the Baltic is concerned, the states along its shores — the USSR, Poland, Denmark, the German Democratic Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany and other European states — have worked out a convention to prevent its pollution.
From Soviet Weekly
SCIENTISTS FIGHT OLD AGE
At the Institute of Gerontology in Kiev, a branch of the Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences, scientists are waging an offensive against old age.
We begin to age far earlier than we think. The process of "descending development" begins in the early thirties.
As a biological species, man ought to live 100-120 years, but for various reasons we lose the last 30 or 40.
We can now, however, to some extent, lengthen life. In experiments on animals, we have learned to prolong it by a third or more.
One aspect of the institute's work is the discovery and testing of substances which will produce a physiological effect — combinations of vitamins which the aging body needs and preparations with microelements and amino-acids
Some of these are giving promising results.
In some republics, like Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, people over 80 are forming a distinct and evergrowing group of the population.
Old age is a contradictory process. On the one hand the body adapts itself in some ways, while, on the other, certain faculties atrophy and die.
It appears that our brains and muscles tend to stay young the more actively and regularly we use them.
A correctly chosen profession, doing as much work as we are fit for, sensible meals and purposeful, not passive, leisure are all things that help the body adapt.
It has long been remarked that there are in the world some places where people live longer, are less frequently ill, and are able to work almost to the end of their days.
There are areas like that in the USSR, and the Kiev Institute of Gerontology has made a special study of some of them, examining some 40,000 people aged 80 and over.
They questioned centenarians (that is, people over 100 years old) about themselves, and also about their forebears and the way they lived, what they ate, what work they did, and so on.
The laboratory of social gerontology has summed up the work done by over a thousand doctors.
They found, for instance, that as a rule centenarians live in rural areas, and that more than half of them are engaged in farming. Only one in twelve of them are vegetarians, but half never smoke or drink anything alcoholic. It is interesting that very few of them have been divorced.
The Kiev institute is engaged in joint undertakings with doctors in Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic and Hungary.
The more joint study there is, the more exchange of information, and the more exchange of personnel, the sooner will problems that affect so many millions be solved.
From Soviet Weekly
MONTH IN THE COUNTRY?
Two lorry drivers working on a new road being cut through the Siberian forests were found recently after being lost in the taiga for nearly a month.
The two, Anatoly Laptev and Vladislav Inshin, had gone hunting with no more that 20 cartridges between them.
After firing off all their cartridges, they met two bears. Fortunately these local residents appeared to have dined well and did not attack them.
Another encounter proved lucky. It was the half-buried carcass of a huge elk, recently killed by a bear and stored for future meals.
Meanwhile their comrades were looking for them. A helicopter and an AN-2 plane circled over the forest from morning to night.
The two men saw the helicopter, but had no way of signalling it. Their matches had run out as well, and rubbing two sticks together only blistered their fingers.
At the beginning of the fourth week, they found a hunter's winter hut, with stores of dry bread, matches and salt.
After bringing in wood, Laptev left his comrade, who had sprained an ankle, and went on, looking for help. He finally emerged near the Educhanka, a river falling into the Angara some 60 miles below the village from which their hunting expedition had started.
Even then it took another two days to find the hut, which could not be seen from the air.
From Soviet Weekly
NAPOLEON'S SWORD
Among the many weapons in the State History Museum in Moscow is Napoleon's sword. It has its own history.
Manufactured by the best armorers of Versailles, it has a Damascus steel blade on which is inscribed: "To Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul of the French Republic." The hilt is inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and has bronze and filigree work as ornamentation. At the end of the hilt is a lion's head and a ring. The scabbard is of black leather, ornamented in bronze. The signature of Boutte—the armorer —is engraved on the scabbard. The only time Napoleon ever parted with his sword was under the following circumstances.
When the French army was routed and the allied troops entered Paris, on March 31, 1814, the high command decided to exile Napoleon to the Island of Elba. Among the three allied commissars who were to accompany him was Count Pavel Shuvalov, aide-de-camp of Alexander I. When he learned that an attempt was to be made on Napoleon's life at one of the ports through which they would pass, Count Shuvalov offered to change clothes with Napoleon, and gave him his army greatcoat. As a token of gratitude Napoleon presented him with his sword.
In 1912 the sword was shown at an exhibition for the centenary of the Patriotic War of 1812. After the exhibition it was returned to Countess Vorontsova-Dashkova, nee Shuvalova, and was preserved for a long time at her estate in the Ukraine.
In 1926, a Red Army officer, whose name is not known, presented Napoleon's sword to the Museum of the Red Army as the weapon he used in the war. A little later one of. the museum's staff discovered the inscription and the sword was given to the State History Museum.
From Canadian Tribune
APPOINTMENT IN SAMARRA
Death speaks: "There was a merchant in Baghdad who sent his servant to market to buy provisions, and in a little while the servant came back, white and trembling, and said, "Master, just now when I was in the market-place I was jostled by a woman in the crowd and when I turned I saw it was Death that jostled me. She looked at me and made a threatening gesture; now lend me your horse, and I will ride away from this city and avoid my fate. I will go to Samarra and there Death will not find me." The merchant lent him his horse, and the servant mounted it, and he dug his spurs in its flanks and as fast as the horse could gallop he went. Then the merchant went down to the market-place and he saw me standing in the crowd and he came to me and said, "Why did you make a threatening gesture to my servant when you saw him this morning?" "That was not a threatening gesture," I said, "it was only a start of surprise. I was astonished to see him in Baghdad, for I had an appointment with him tonight in Samarra."
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