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ISBN 5-94692-378-1
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811.111(075.8) 81.2-923
ISBN 5-94692-378-1
- .., - .., 2003 ͻ, 2003
................................................................................................................... 5
PARTI............................................................................................................................. 5
Unit 1. Development of Mankind........................................................................... 8
................................................................................... 20
. ................... 25
Unit 2. Clash of Civilisations................................................................................ 28
................................................................................... 42
. .................................. 46
UNIT 3. International Relations.......................................................................... 50
.................................................................................... 64
. ..................................................... 67
Unit 4. Globalisation............................................................................................... 69
.................................................................................... 81
. .................................................... 83
Unit 5. International Law...................................................................................... 87
................................................................................. 101
. ............................. 107
Unit 6. Human Rights........................................................................................... 111
................................................................................. 126
. .................................................... 130
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Unit 7. Recent History of Russia........................................................................ 133
................................................................................. 145
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.......................................................... 147
Unit 8. Armed Forces................................................................. 149
....................................................... 163
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.............................................................. 165
PART II......................................................................................... 167
Unit 9. Macroeconomics............................................................ 167
....................................................... 182
. ....... 187
Unit 10. World Economy........................................................... 189
....................................................... 204
. 207
Unit 11. Mass Culture................................................................. 211
....................................................... 225
. .......... 229
Unit 12. Mass Media.................................................................. 232
....................................................... 244
. ................................ 248
Unit 13. Information Society...................................................... 257
....................................................... 273
. ..... 276
Unit 14. Biotechnology.............................................................. 280
............................................................ 296
. .............. 303
Unit 15. Conquering Space........................................................ 306
............................................................ 324
. ........ 328
Unit 16. Olympic Games............................................................ 330
....................................................... 343
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Part I
UNIT 1.
Development of Mankind
7. .
The most remarkable development of the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the revelation of enormous weaknesses at the core of the world's seemingly strong dictatorships, whether they be of the military-authoritarian Right, or the communist-totalitarian Left. From Latin America to Eastern Europe, from the Soviet Union to the Middle East and Asia, strong governments have been failing over the last two decades. And while they have not given way in all cases to stable liberal democracies, liberal democracy remains the only coherent political aspiration that spans different regions and cultures around the globe. In addition, liberal principles in economics - the "free market" - have spread, and have succeeded in producing unprecedented levels of material prosperity, both in industrially developed countries and in countries that had been, at the close of World War II, part of the impoverished Third World. A liberal revolution in economic thinking has sometimes preceded, sometimes followed, the move toward political freedom around the globe.
Nationalism has been the vehicle for the struggle for recognition over the past hundred years, and the source of this century's most intense conflicts. A world made up of liberal democracies should have much less incentive for war, since all nations would reciprocally recognise one another's legitimacy. And indeed, there is substantial empirical evidence from the past couple of hundred years that liberal democracies do not behave imperialistically toward one another, even if they are perfectly capable of going to war with states that are not democracies and do not share their fundamental values.
Nationalism is currently on the rise in regions like Eastern Europe and ex-Soviet Union where peoples have long been denied their national identities, and yet within the world's oldest and most secure nationalities, nationalism is undergoing a process of change. The demand for national recognition in Western Europe has been domesticated and made compatible with universal recognition, much like religion three or four centuries before.
2. .
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3. 1.
4. . .
to achieve equality................... to become pessimistic...
to be at odds............................. to become accustomed to..
to be based on.............................. to share values..............
to be on the rise............................ to establish validity.......
to go to war.................................. to excite commentary...
to come to an end......................... to address the question.
to give way to............................... to demand recognition..
to have effect........................... to appeal to the authority..
to make possible....................... to establish the basis for....
to make sense............................... to span different regions...
to make compatible.................. to undergo modernisation.
to present an effort................... to draw on the ideas of smb........
to prove wrong......................... to establish a uniform horizon....
to raise the question................. to increase standards of living...
to seek recognition................... to provide for the universal education
to unify nationally.......................................................................
5. . .
1. Standards of living increase, populations become more cosmopolitan
and better educated, society as a whole achieves a greater equality of
condition, and people begin to demand not simply more wealth but rec
ognition of their status.
2. It is not sufficient to appeal to the authority of the great philosophers of
the past to establish the validity of an objective history.
3. People have become accustomed by now to expect that the future will
contain bad news with respect to the health and security of liberal politi
cal practices and they have problems recognising good news when it
comes.
4. History comes to an end because the contradictions that pushed the his
torical process have now been settled down.
5. The thesis of the "end of history" was drawn on the ideas of philoso
phers like Kant and Hegel who had addressed this question before.
6. Modern natural science establishes a uniform horizon of economic pro
duction possibilities.
7. The new theory excited an extraordinary amount of commentary and
controversy.
8. Technology makes possible the limitless accumulation of wealth, and
thus the satisfaction of an ever-expanding set of human desires.
9. Understanding history in a conventional sense as the occurrence of
events, people pointed to the numerous developments as evidence that
"history was continuing," and that the thesis of the "end of history" was
proven wrong.
10. By raising the question of whether there is such a thing as a Universal
History of mankind, the scholar is resuming a discussion that was begun
in the early nineteenth century.
11. Human beings seek recognition of their own worth, or of the people,
things, or principles that they invest with worth.
12. All countries undergoing economic modernisation must increasingly re-semble one another: they must unify nationally on the basis of a cen-tralised state, urbanise, replace traditional forms of social organisation with economically rational ones based on function and efficiency, and provide for the universal education of their citizens.
6. , .
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7. 6.
8. , ( ).
Some years ago as the Cold.. was ending and the Soviet... was im
ploding, almost everyone saw the emergence of a single superpower
Since then there has been much debate over how to conceptualise the suc
cessor... to the bipolar..... of the Cold....... Is it unipolar, multipolar or
uni-multipolar? A unipolar world is one in which a single state acting unilat
erally with little or no... from other states can effectively resolve major
international... and no other state or combination of states has the to
prevent it from doing so. A multipolar world is one in which a of major
powers is necessary to resolve important international................... and, if the is
a substantial one, no other single state can prevent it from doing that. A uni-
multipolar world, on the other hand, is one in which of key international
..... requires action by the single superpower plus some of other major
states and in which the single superpower is able to veto action by a of
other states. Global.. has now moved from a brief unipolar moment at the
end of the Cold.... into one or perhaps more uni-multipolar decades on its
way towards a multipolar twenty-first.
(century, coalition, combination, co-operation, empire, issue, politics, power, resolution, system, war, world)
9. , . , .
aspiration...........................................................................................
core....................................................................................................
fact....................................................................................................
history................................................................................................
idea....................................................................................................
identity...............................................................................................
legitimacy..........................................................................................
prosperity...........................................................................................
revelation..........................................................................................
revolution..........................................................................................
theory.................................................................................................
vehicle...............................................................................................
10. , 2, 4, 5, 8 9. .
11, , . . , . , .
May 9,1945; April 12, 1961; July 14, 1789; October 25, 1917; July 4, 1776; October 31, 1517; November 11, 1918; December 14, 1825; February 4, 1945; April 5, 1242; April 29, 1707; October 10, 1066; April 22, 1870; March 18, 1871; October 24, 1648; August 23, 476; May 2, 1989; June 6, 1815; July 20, 1969; February 19, 1861; June 6, 1799; October 14, 1492; January 1, 1700; September 7, 1812; March 4, 1933; November 21, 1620; October 4, 1957; May 29, 1453; January 1, 2001.
12. .
, . , -- . -. . , . XX . , , , , . , .
13. , .
1. The West has become pessimistic with regard to the possibility of overall progress in democratic institutions.
| 14. . . |
2. Strong governments have been failing over the last two decades.
3. It was argued that a remarkable consensus concerning the legitimacy
of liberal democracy as a system of government had emerged
throughout the world over the past few years, as it conquered rival
ideologies.
4. Liberal principles in economics have spread, and have succeeded in
producing unparalleled levels of material prosperity, both in industrially
developed countries and in countries that had been part of the impover
ished Third World.
5. By the end of the twenty first century democracy will have removed all
possible obstacles to its future development.
6. The government promised that it would have domesticated the de
mands for national recognition of the minor ethnicities by the end of the
decade.
7. Totalitarianisms of the Right and Left have kept us too busy to consider
the question of the future democratic institutions seriously for the better
part of this century.
8. The new world order that came into being with the collapse of the So
viet Union will have been existing for twenty years in 2011.
9. Free market has been spreading in unparalleled pace d uring the last
decade.
10. Those theories suggested that there would be no further progress in the
development of underlying principles a nd institutions, because all of the
really big questions had been settled.
11. In Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union people have long been denied
their cultural identities.
12. The unfolding of modern natural science has had a uniform effect on all
societies that have experienced it.
13. The senator-elect addressed his constituents and promised not to run for
re-election because by the end of his term he would have been repre
senting his people for six years and it would be appropriate time to send
someone else to Washington.
14. A liberal revolution has preceded the move toward political freedom
around the globe.
15. The victims of the past century's political violence would deny that
there has been such a thing as historical progress.
1. In watching the flow of events
over the past decade or so, it is
hard to avoid the feeling that
something very fundamental has
happened in world history.
2. The past year has seen a flood of
articles commemorating the end
of the old world order.
3. The choice it makes will be
highly important for us, given
the country's size and military
strength, for that power will
continue to preoccupy us and
slow our realisation that we have
already emerged on the other
side of history.
4. There was no material reason why
new fascist movements did not
spring up again after the war in
other locales, but for the fact that
expansionist ultranationalism, with
its promise of unending conflict
leading to disastrous military de
feat, had completely lost its
appeal.
5. What is important from this standpoint is that political liberalism has been following economic liberalism, more slowly than many had hoped but with seeming inevitability.
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| 6. By the end of the twenty first century the idea of the end of history will havecompletely lostmajority of it proponents as many other concepts of the twentieth century. 7. Less organised social impulses have beensuccessfully satisfiedwithin the sphere of personal life that is permitted in liberal socie ties. |
6. XXI
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Conflict
1. . 1) , : armed conflict!-
. Syn: fight, battle; 2) , ,
: to come into conflict with smb - -
, to provoke a conflict - , to resolve a con
flict - , recurring conflicts -
. Syn: dispute, collision, controversy
2. v. l) , . Syn: to fight, to contend, to do battle;
2) , ;
, (with). Syn: to come into collision, to be incom
patible
Evidence
l) , : on this evidence - , , from all evidence - , scrap / shred of evidence - , body of evidence - , bulk of evidence - , empirical evidence - , . Syn: indication, sign, token, trace; 2) , , : evidence of facts - , ample/cogent/compelling/convincing evidence - , documentary evidence - , undeniable / unquestionable evidence - , reliable / trustworthy / satisfactory / strong evidence - . Syn: testimony, proof
Government
l) : to dissolve a government - , , to form a government - , to head a government - , to oper-
ate / run a government - , strong government - , organs of government - , central / general / national government - , civil government - , invisible government
- , limited government - ,
military government - , minority government -
, provisional government -
, shadow government - ; 2)
: democratic government - ,
dictatorial government - , federal government -
, parliamentary government -
, totalitarian government - ;
3) : local / provincial government - .
Syn: control; 4) , ; , , .
Syn: province, state
National
1. adj. 1) , : national feelings -
, national self-determination - ,
national minority - , national convention -
; 2) : national interests
- , national sovereignty -
, national power - / , na
tional assembly - / , national se
curity - / , national bank -
, national anthem - , na
tional debt - , national emergency -
. Syn: state, public
2. . 1) . Syn: compatriot, fellow countryman; 2)
, : enemy nationals -
Source
, , , , : at a source - , to cite sources - , , unimpeachable / unreliable source - , reputable / trustworthy source - , undisclosed / unnamed source - , original source - ep-
, secondary sources - - . Syn: origin
17. .
- to run a government - - national anthem - - unimpeachable source - to resolve a conflict - military government - - - - - shadow government - - reliable evidence - - - national assembly - invisible government - - - national sovereignty - limited government - - - enemy nationals - provisional government - - - from all evidence - - - - -national feelings - documentary evidence - to dissolve a government - - shred of evidence - - - - - body of evidence - to come into collision - .
18. , .
| evidence | compatriot |
| government | collision |
| source | power |
| national | proof |
| conflict | origin |
19. .
1. How has the human society been developing over the past decades?
2. Why has nationalism been the vehicle for the struggle for recognition
over the past hundred years?
3. Why has our epoch been considered transitional?
4. In what way has history demonstrated the contradictions of progress?
5. What have the liberal principles brought to the world?
20. . .
Liberty is conforming to the majority.
{Hugh Scanlon)
If people have to choose between freedom and sandwiches, they will take sandwiches.
(Lord Boyd-Orr)
Every time thought is driven underground, even if it is bad thought, it is a danger to society.
(Ramsay Macdonald)
A little rebellion now and then, is a good thing.
{Thomas Jefferson)
Ancient civilisations were destroyed by imported barbarians; we breed our own.
{Dean Inge).
Comfort is the only thing our civilisation can give us.
{Oscar Wilde)
> , , . (: historical experience; : to lay / withdraw siege, to make an attempt; --: to come down to history; --: to date back to; etc.) . - . .
> nation, national, nationality
-.
nation
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. , nation state
.
nation , state, . - state , , nation, national ( ). national federal, central.
, national - , , , , . , national interests , , . nationality ( ), , , ethnicity cultural identity.
> ,
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sympathy, to sympathise - , ( , -)
rosary - , (. - ; - ) gas (gasoline) - , ( , - , , , ; sparkling water)
minister - , , ,
notebook - - , ( , - laptop); -
sodium - ( - natruim, - soda)
preservative -
corral - , ( - coral)
band - , , - , , - ( - - gang)
sausage - ( - hot dog)
Caucasian - , () ( )
> : - , , - ,
, . , year : May 9, 1945-9 1945 .
( ). , , 5/9/1945 ( 5.9.1945) - 9 1945 . (May 9, 1945) , 5 1945 ., , . 9 1945 . : 9.05.1945 ( 9IVI1945). September 5, 1945.
, ( ) :
Sept. 7, 1812
( ). , . , , . . - .
> . , , : of- , . , , , , (0) [au]. , , -
, - . (500, 600, 1700, 1800 ..), ; . , , - . year :
August 23, 476 - August twenty three four seventy six - August the twenty third four seventy six - The twenty third of August four seventy six
October 10, 1066 - October ten ten sixty six - October the tenth ten sixty six - The tenth of October ten sixty six
January 1, 1700 - January one seventeen hundred - January the first seventeen hundred - The first of January seventeen hundred
April 29, 1707 - April twenty nine seventeen seven - April the twenty ninth seventeen seven - The twenty ninth of April seventeen seven
May 9, 1945 - May nine nineteen forty five - May the ninth nineteen forty five - The ninth of May nineteen forty five
January 1, 2001 - January one two thousand one - January the first two thousand one - The first of January two thousand one
>
:
World War I (World War One) - World War II (World War Two) -
The First World War - The Second World War -
> :
the Middle East - ( ) the Far East - ( , , - )
Middle Asia - ,
Eastern Europe - ( )
Western Europe - Latin America -
> , . , , , . , - "If people have to choose between freedom and sandwiches, they will take sand-wiches" : - , . sandwiches , - - (.: , ; . : ).
{Perfect Tenses), , .
- Perfect Perfect Continuous. :
Perfect Tenses - to have
Indefinite Tense {Present, Past, Future,
Future in the Past) (
) ;
Perfect Continuous Tenses - to
have Indefinite Tense,
to be {been)
.
.
| Present | Past | Future | Future in the Past | |
| Indefinite | take | took | will take | would take |
| Continuous | am (is / are) taking | was (were) taking | will be taking | would be taking |
| Perfect | have (has) taken | had taken | will have taken | would have taken |
| Perfect Con-tinuous | have (has) been taking | had been taking | will have been taking | would have been taking |
, . , . . , {Present Perfect) , {Present Perfect Continuous). . , , . .
I delivered a report two hours ago.
, , , , .
Per capita incomes have been failing since the late eighties.
Since mid-century, the objective reasons for pessimism have faded. Nationalism has been the vehicle for the struggle for recognition over the past hundred years.
past - - , . past century .
In the past century, there have been two major challenges to liberalism, those of fascism and of communism.
, XX ., .
, Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuos , . ; .
Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous , , .
Future Perfect, Future Perfect Continuous, Future in the Past Perfect Future in the Past Perfect Continuous, , , ( Future) ( Future in the Past).
UNIT 2.
Clash of Civilisations
1. .
Nation states remain the principal actors in world affairs. Their behaviour is shaped as in the past by the pursuit of power and wealth, but it is also shaped by cultural preferences, commonalties, and differences. The most important groupings of states are the eight major civilisations. Non-Western societies are developing their economic wealth and creating the basis for enhanced military power and political influence. As their power and self-confidence increase, non-Western societies increasingly assert their own cultural values and reject those "imposed" on them by the West. The "international system of the twenty-first century," Henry Kissinger has noted, "will contain at least six major powers - the United States, Europe, China, Japan, Russia, and probably India - as well as a multiplicity of medium-sized and smaller countries." These six major powers belong to five very different civilisations. In this new world, local politics is the politics of ethnicity; global politics is the politics of civilisations. The rivalry of the superpowers is replaced by the clash of civilisations.
In this new world the most pervasive, important, and dangerous conflicts will be between peoples belonging to different cultural entities. Tribal wars and ethnic conflicts will occur within civilisations. Violence between states and groups from different civilisations, carries with it the potential for escalation as other states and groups from these civilisations rally to the support of their "kin countries." Cultural conflicts are more dangerous today than at any time in history. The most dangerous cultural conflicts are those along the fault lines between civilisations. The major differences in political and
economic development among civilisations are rooted in their different cultures. The West is and will remain for years to come the most powerful civilisation. Yet its power relative to that of other civilisations is declining. A central axis of the present world politics is the interaction of Western power and culture with the power and culture of non-Western civilisations.
2. 1 , , .
3. . , 1 .
4. .
| political influence....................... politics of civilisations................ politics of ethnicity..................... clash of civilisations................... non-Western civilisations............ potential for escalation............... economic development.............. pursuit of power......................... major powers.............................. rivalry of the superpowers.......... |
cultural commonalties..............
cultural differences..................
cultural conflicts.......................
'ethnic conflicts.........................
tribal wars.................................
world affairs............................
global politics...........................
local politics.............................
central axis...............................
kin countries............................
medium-sized and smaller countries.
5. .
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to succeed..........................................................................................
to recognise........................................................................................
to reveal.............................................................................................
to develop..........................................................................................
to govern............................................................................................
to behave...........................................................................................
to fail.................................................................................................
7. , . , , -. - . , , , - .
JOURNALIST: XX . . , XXI . ?
PROFESSOR: Because the world has evolved and, in particular, Western civilisation has evolved, and the major clashes of the twentieth century were all within Western civilisation. Civilisations evolve over time, and most scholars of civilisation argue that they go through periods of warring states, and eventually evolve into a universal state. The West has not reached its universal state as
