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:

































 

 

 

 


Academic listening / Listening to lectures




 

, . , , , . . (Flowerdew 1994). :

, ;

;

. , , , , . , , . - ( , , ) .

, , (. Note-taking, note-making, . 114).

 

3.4. Teaching speaking skills

 

Speaking

 

() , - . , . , :

;

, ;

;

;

, , ;

;

, ;

;

.

, - - . , , , , , ( 1989; 1991). - (), () . , , : .

, : .

Bottom-up processing, , , ( ) , (). , , , , .

Top-down processing, , , . (, , ) , , - . , . , , ( 1988, . 188).

.: Bygate 1993; Nunan 1998, p. 45; 1985, . 116; . 1990; . 1991, . 129.

 

Speaking turn

 

, - . . - . . , (. Short turn us. Long turn, . 108).

. , . , , .

( ) , ( - - ), (adjacency pair). . . , . - - ( ). : ; ; ; .

 

Turn-taking

 

, . , , , - (turn-taking strategies). :

. , , .

( , ) holding a turn. . , , .

relinquishing a turn.

.: Keller and Warner 1988; Richards 1994b, p. 68; 1989, . 162; 1989.

 

Short turn vs. Long turn

 

, , , - , . . . , , , . .

, - , , -, , , . , , . (transactional skills).

- , , . . , , (Brown and Yule 1993, p. 16).

 

Interactional speech

 

, (interaction). , , . . ( , , ).

, - . , - , , , , .

, , . , , , , , ( , ).

, ( , ), , . ( , ). (, ). (.: Brown and Yule 1993; Richards 1994a, 1994b; 1989).

, . (adjacency pair). , ( , ), , , - ( 1985; 1993-1994).

(interactional skills) , :

(. Turn-taking, . 107);

;

;

, ( 1991, . 162).

 

Transactional speech

 

, . . , () , , , , . transactional speech (transaction). .

, , . , , (), . , - . (description), (report / account), (narration), (argument) .

, , , .

, - , , .. , .. , .. , .. ; . : Brown and Yule 1993; Richards 1994b.

: , (reproduction vs. production), (planned monologue vs. unplanned monologue) . (transactional skills), -, , ( 1986, . 81). (. Information transfer, . 143), (. Jigsaw activities, . 136), (. Oral reporting, . 144), (. Discussion, . 145) . .

.: 1985; 1988, . 176; 1989, 1991.

 

3.5. Teaching writing skills

 

Writing

 

1. . writing - , : , , . . (mechanics of writing), . , , . ( ) , .

2. () . . .

(writing for training / writing for reinforcement) - , - , , . , . (composition) (dicto-comp / dicto-gloss). - .

(writing for communication) , . , , , , . (. , Types of writing), , (Hedge 1993, . 96; 1986).

guided writing free writing .

Guided writing / controlled writing , (. Cues, . 170).

Free writing .

: , , , (. Product-oriented writing, . 116; Process-oriented writing, . 117). , , (Raimes 1987; Kroll 1993; Richards 1994b; White and Arndt 1994; Dyer 1996; 1969).

 

Types of writing

 

( , .. : 1955, . 77). , (written genres), .

- , , .

. (Hedge 1993, . 96) , , .

Types of writing

 

Study writing   Professional writing Social writing   Personal writing   Creative writing  
essays   business letters   notes   diaries   poems  
research reports   progress reports   letters   journals   stories  
summaries   resumes/   invitations   reminders   rhymes  
reviews   curriculum vitae   messages   addresses   drama  
annotations   applications   instructions   recipes   scripts  
abstracts   public notices       shopping   lyrics  
notes   contracts       lists      
    memoranda       packing      
    minutes       lists      
    advertisements              
    articles              

1. Study writing / academic writing , () . (notes), (reviews), (summaries) (essays) (. Study writing, . 123).

2. Professional writing / business writing , ; , (business letters), (contracts), (public notices), (progress reports), (articles), (minutes), (memoranda / memos) . .

3. Social writing , (notes), (letters), (postcards), (e-mail messages), (telephone messages).

4. Personal writing , (diaries, journals), (reminders), (recipies), (addresses).

5. Creative writing : , , . .

, ( , ; . Composing, . 115) ( , , ; . Summarizing, . 114).

.: White 1987, . 261; 1991, . 96; 1997, . 5.

 





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