.


:




:

































 

 

 

 


, , .




UNIT IV

TEXT A: HEAT TRANSFER (INTRODUCTORY TEXT)


 

 


, whereby - rate of heat transfer -

feature - thermal motion - energy transport - surrounding space -

radiant emission - relative motion -

to include - to employ - mastery - therefore -


 

 


1. , .

2. 2- .

3. "to involve" "involving" (.).

4. "technique" (.) :

; ; ; ; , , .

TEXT

1. The study of heat transfer includes the physical processes whereby thermal energy is transferred as a result of difference or gradients of temperature.

The information generally desired is the way in which the rate of heat transfer depends upon the various features of the process.

2. There are two basically different processes whereby thermal energy is transported: conduction and radiation. Energy is conducted through a material in which a temperature gradient exists by the thermal motion of various of the microscopic particles of which the material is composed; energy is diffused through the material by these thermal motions. Radiation is an energy transport from material into the surrounding space by electromagnetic waves. Radiant emission is also due to the thermal motion of microscopic particles but the energy is transmitted electromagnetically. If conduction occurs in a fluid in motion, the diffusion of thermal energy will be affected by the relative motion within the fluid. Conduction processes affected by relative motion are called convection processes.

3. Since the field of heat transfer includes processes involving thermal diffusion, electromagnetic radiation, and fluid motion, the study includes theories from many branches of science and employs many different types of analytic techniques. Therefore the study of heat transfer requires the mastery of many concepts and methods of analysis.

 

, .

, , , .

2. , : . , , ; . - . - , . , . , , .

, , , . .

 

TEXT B: HEAT CONDUCTION AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ,


 

 


rate - , , ,

, directly proportional -

Inversely proportional -

thermal conductivity -

face - , , unit cube - to maintain - transport property -

wide range - to encounter - psia/pound per square inch absolute - . ratio - , ,

1.

negligible - ,

conduction characteristics -

grain - , prediction - , random motion -

similar - , net energy - , , space density-

diffusion of momentum - to store - , monatomic - diatomic -

:


1. What does the rate of heat conduction depend upon? 2. What definition of thermal conductivity is given in this text? 3. In what units is thermal conductivity expressed? 4. How is heat conducted in gases?

2. "followed by good insulators" (3 .). ?

3. .

TEXT

1. The rate of heat conduction through a solid material (of fluid without relative motion) is proportional to the temperature difference across the material and to the area perpendicular to heat flow and inversely proportional to the length of the path of heat flow between the two temperature levels. This dependence was established by Furier and is analogous to the relation for the conduction of electricity, called Ohm's law. The constant of proportionality in Fourier's low, denoted by K, is called thermal conductivity and is a property of the conducting material and of its state.

2. The thermal conductivity is analogous to electric conductivity. It is equivalent to the rate of heat transfer between opposite faces of a unit cube of the material which are maintained at temperatures differing by one degree. In engineering units in the English system, k is pressed in Btu/h ft2 F/ft =Btu/h ft F.

In metric units, k may be expressed as cal/sec cmC or watts/cmC.

3. The transport property, thermal conductivity, varies over a wide range for the various substances commonly encountered. For example, for air at 14,7 psia and 60F it is 0,015 and for silver it is 240 in English units. This is a ratio of 1:16000. Gases generally have the lowest thermal conductivities, followed by good insulators, nonmetallic liquids, nonmetallic solids, liquid metals, metal alloys, and, finally, the best conductors, pure metals.

4. Thermal conductivity for a given material depends upon its state and may vary with temperature, pressure, and ets. For moderate pressure levels the effect of pressure is small. However for many substances the effect of temperature upon is not negligible.

5. Many materials have different conduction characteristics in different directions. For example, wood and other fibrous materials have higher thermal conductivities parallel to the grain than perpendicular to it.

6. Theoretical predictions have been made of the value of thermal conductivity for several types of substances. In gases heat is conducted (i.e. thermal energy is diffused) by the random motion of molecules. Higher-velocity molecules from higher-temperature regions move about randomly, and some reach regions of lower temperature. By a similar random process lower-velocity molecules reach higher-temperature regions. Thereby net energy is exchanged between the two regions. The thermal conductivity depends upon the space density of molecules, upon their mean free path and upon the magnitude of the molecular velocities. The net result of these effects for gases having very simple molecules is a dependence of upon T where T is the absolute temperature. This is a result of the kinetic theory of gases.

7. A similar temperature dependence is found for the viscosity of gases. The viscosity ":" is a measure of the diffusion of momentum. It may be shown that there is a simple relation between and: involving the specific heat cv and a factor i, where the value of i depends upon the way in which energy is stored in the gas molecules, = icv where cv is the specific heat at constant volume.

( ) . Furier , . , , K, .

2. . , , . k Btu/h ft2 F/ft =Btu/h ft F.

k cal/sec cmC watts/cmC.

3. , , , . , 14,7 60F 0,015, 240 . - 1:16000. , , , , , , , , , .

, ets. , . , .

. , , , .

. (.. ) . - , . - . , . . , , T, T - . - .

7. . : . , : i, , , = icv, - .

 

TEXT C: CONVECTION ,

in the absence - forced convection -

to result . ( .-.)

to result in - .-. to introduce -

resulting - to modify -

buoyant effect - to aid in - , buoyancy -

natural convection - displacement - ,

1. . .

2. "The natural convection heat transfer process ".

TEXT

Energy is conducted through fluids, as through solids. However the heat transfer process in the air is not simple conduction. Even in the absence of wind a flow process results. The buoyant effect in the heated layers of air near the surface causes them to rise and move away from the surface. These layers are replaced by cooler air from below and from farther out from the surface. This effect results in temperature distribution. The resulting heat-transfer process in the outside air is called natural convection. Convection processes in which the fluid motion is induced by heat-transfer are called natural convection.

A wind velocity would further modify the temperature distribution by aiding in the displacement of the heated air layers by cooler air. The effect of a wind velocity, which is imposed upon the natural convection heat-transfer process is called forced convection. For sufficiently high wind velocities, buoyancy effects would be negligible, and the process would be pure forced convection.

, . , . . . . . . , , .

, . , , . , .

 

TEXT D: THERMAL RADIATION AND EMISSIVE POWER


 

 


to distinguish - . presence -

intermediate carrier -

to impede - , space between - .

as a consequence-

to emit - energy content - a quantity - - ,

microscopic arrangement -

rate of emission of energy -

surroundings - . to promote - means - , occurrence - , incidence - , particular wavelength-

thermal motion -

thermal radiation - amenable - ,

to be dependent upon - relation - , ,

incident radiation -


 

 


, :

1. What definition of radiation energy-transfer process is given in the text?

2. What are the possible uses of radiant discharge processes?

3. What surface is called "black"?

II. :

1. Radiant energy transfer process Energy carrying electromagnetic waves Net energy transfer rate

The temperature and spatial relationships

2. Radiant energy discharge High energy particles Heat-transfer phenomena Radiant exchange process

The rate of thermal energy emission Energy emission rate





:


: 2017-02-25; !; : 359 |


:

:

80% - .
==> ...

1531 - | 1383 -


© 2015-2024 lektsii.org - -

: 0.031 .