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TEXT D

1. One of the basic mechanisms by which energy is transferred between regions of different temperature is called radiation. This mechanism is distinguished from conduction by the fact that it does not depend upon the presence of intermediate material to act as a carrier of energy. On the contrary, a radiation transfer process between two regions is usually impeded by the presence of a material in the space between. The radiation energy- transfer process is explained as a consequence of energy-carrying electromagnetic waves. These waves are emitted by atoms and molecules of matter as the result of various changes in their energy content. The amount and characteristics of the radiant energy emitted by a quantity of material depends primarily upon the nature of the material, its microscopic arrangement,

and its absolute temperature. The rate of emission of energy is assumed to be independent of the surroundings. However, the net energy-transfer rate depends upon the temperature and spatial relationships of the various materials involved in the radiation-transfer process.

2. A wide variety of radiant energy-discharge processes are known. The various kinds of discharge are promoted by many means - for example, by bombardment with high-energy particles by the occurrence of a chemical reaction, by an electric discharge, or by the incidence of relatively low energy radiation of particular wave-lengths. One type of discharge process of special interest in connection with heat-transfer phenomena is that which arises as the result of the thermal motion of molecules. This type of radiant energy is called thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is composed of waves of many wave-lengths and is amenable to relatively simple laws. Many of the radiant-exchange processes by which appreciable amounts of energy are transferred between surfaces are thermal in nature.

3. The rate of thermal radiant energy emission by a surface is directly dependent upon its absolute temperature. The relation between the energy-emission rate and the temperature is very simple if the surface is "black". A surface is called "black" if it will absorb all incident radiation.

D

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3. . , . , .

 

UNIT V

TEXT A: MOLECULAR MASS TRANSFER


 

 


, driving force - concentration gradient -

component of a mixture -

/ mechanism - , , ,

, molecular diffusion -

thermal diffusion - to arise from - to result from - - pressure diffusion - by virtue of - forced diffusion - /

interface - ,

, .-. to confront - humidification - cutting - welding - ablation - heat shield - deaeration - feed water - steam boiler - heat treatment -

waste treatment -

eddy current - ,

non-equilibrium -


 

 


mode - , , , ,

, , to dominate - ,

moisture laden air -

subsequent precipitation - , / to be concerned with -


I. ,

1. What definition of mass transfer can you give?

2. What mechanisms of mass transfer are mentioned in the text?

3. Can you explain the difference between the words "mechanism" and "mode"?

4. What examples of mass transfer does the author give?

5. Can you add any other examples?

II. :

Forced convection mass transfer Interphase mass transfer Molecular mass transfer Convective mass transfer Moisture laden air

TEXT A

1. In this chapter another driving force, concentration gradient, is introduced. This driving force causes the transport of a component of a mixture from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. The transport process is known as mass transfer. The mechanisms of mass transfer are varied. They can be classified into eight types: 1. Molecular (ordinary) diffusion, resulting form a concentration gradient. 2. Thermal diffusion, arising from a temperature gradient. 3. Pressure diffusion, which occurs by virtue of a pressure gradient. 4. Forced diffusion, resulting from external forces other than gravity. 5. Forced- convection mass transfer. 6. Natural-convection mass transfer. 7. Turbulent mass transfer resulting from eddy currents in a fluid. 8. Interphase mass transfer occurring by virtue of non-equilibrium at an interface.

2. These types divide naturally into two distinct modes of transport. The first four are molecular mass transfer; the last four are convective mass transfer. Although the two modes often occur simultaneously, one mode usually dominates and we can understand the mechanisms better by considering them separately.

3. Examples of mass transfer in everyday life are legion: the diffusion of sugar in a cup of coffee; vaporization of water in a tea-kettle; the movement of moisture- laden air over the ocean with its subsequent precipitation on dry land; combustion and air-conditioning process, cloud formation; clothes drying. The chemical engineer is concerned with gas absorption, separation, crystallization and extraction, the mechanical engineer confronts the mass-transfer process in humidification, drying, cutting and welding metals, ablation of heat shields in high-speed flight, deaeration of feed water in steam boilers, and the production and heat treatment of metals; and civil engineers make use of mass transfer in waste treatment.

A

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3. - : ; ; - ; , ; . - , , , - , , , , , ; - .

 

 

TEXT : THE DIFFUSION MODE

, .

binary mixture - inverse - ,

/ other than - , steady state - /

to offset - , to be constant with time -

to ignore - ,

species - , , , , , spacing - , , , ,

I. , :

1. What practical application of thermal diffusion is mentioned in this text?

2. What example of forced diffusion does the author give?

3. Why is it possible to say that mass transfer by diffusion is analogous to conduction heat transfer?

4. Why is diffusion rate faster in gases than in liquids?

II. .

TEXT

1. This chapter will deal primarily with the molecular (ordinary) diffusion of binary (two-component) mixtures, typifying the diffusion process and being the most significant of the types of diffusion.

2. For the case of thermal diffusion in a binary mixture, the molecules of one component travel toward the hot region while the molecules of the other component tend to move toward the cold region. The inverse is the tendency to generate a thermal gradient with the development of a concentration gradient. Thermal diffusion has been successfully used in the separation of isotopes.

3. Pressure diffusion results when a pressure gradient exists in a fluid mixture, e.g., in a closed tube which is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the tube'q axis (centrifuge). The lighter component tends to move toward the low-pressure region.

4. An external force other than gravity in a mixture when it acts in a different manner on the different components, results in forced diffusion. The diffusion of ions in an electrolyte in an electric field is a classic example of forced diffusion.

5. When thermal, pressure, and/or forced diffusion occur, a concentration gradient is developed, casing ordinary diffusion in the opposite direction. Upon reaching a steady state, the fluxes from the two (or more types of diffusion) sometimes offset each other, resulting in properties at a point being constant with time. The effects of thermal, pressure, and forced diffusion will be ignored in the introductory treatment of this chapter.

6. Mass transfer by diffusion is analogous to conduction heat transfer. Mass is transported by the movement of a species in the direction of its decreasing concentration, analogous to the energy exchange between molecules in the direction of decreasing temperature in conduction.

7. Ordinary diffusion may occur in gases, liquids or solids. Because of the molecular spacing the diffusion rate is much faster in gases than in liquids; it is faster in liquids than in solids.

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TEXT C: TYPES OF MOTION

,

steady flow - unsteady local acceleration -

time dependent -

reference axis - wake - to disturb - finally - uniform flow - non-uniform - convective acceleration -

identical - , magnitude - displacement - , ,

with respect to - , stream line - frictionless liquid - cross section - to curve - to inject - ,

to feed (fed, fed) - ,

, constant head tank -

distinct - ,

relatively - smoothly - , laminated - ,

to break up - ,

upstream - ,

prior -

1. , :

What types of flow are described in the text?

What experiment helped Reynolds to observe laminar and turbulent flow?

2. 3- . .

3. 6- . would 1- ?

TEXT

Steady and unsteady flow. If the local acceleration is zero, the motion is steady. The velocity does not change with time, although it may change from point in space. On the other hand, a flow which is time-dependent is unsteady.

Often an unsteady flow can be transformed to steady flow by changing the reference axis. Consider for example, an airplane moving through the atmosphere at a constant speed of V0. The fluid velocity at a point (x0, y0) is unsteady, being zero before the plane reaches the point, varying widely as it passes due to he wake and waves produced by disturbing he air, and finally becoming zero again as the plane disappears.

Uniform and non-uniform flow. If motion is uniform, the convective acceleration is zero. In uniform flow the velocity vector is identical, in magnitude and direction, at every point in the flow field, that is, V/r=0 where "r" is a displacement in any direction. This definition does not require that the velocity itself be constant with respect to time; it requires that any change occur at every point simultaneously; the streamlines must be straight.

A frictionless liquid flowing through a long straight pipe is an example of uniform flow. Non-uniform flow is typified by the flow of a frictionless liquid through a pipe of changing cross section or through a pipe which is curved.

Laminar and turbulent flow. In 1883, while injecting dyes into flows fed by constant-head tanks Reynolds observed two distinct types of flow. At relatively low velocities fluid particles move smoothly, everywhere parallel. Because the fluid moves in a laminated form, it is termed laminar. For laminar flow the dye moves in a thin, straight line.

6. At relatively high velocities, Reynolds noted that the dye would abruptly break up, diffusing throughout the tube. At higher velocities the breaking point moves upstream until it is finally turbulent throughout. Turbulent flow is always unsteady flow by our prior definition.

 

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. 1883 , - , . , . , . , .

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UNIT VI

ATOMIC POWER PLANT

1. ,

exchanger

steam nap

tube ,

dust

attending personnel

to deliver

to pollute

to shield

2. :

a. auxiliary units _________________________________________

steam generator__________________________________________

heat exchanger__________________________________________

fuel consumption

b. water to be heated in the reactor water to be converted into steam

steam to be fed into the turbogenerator

c. the polluted atmosphere utilized nuclear fuel

shielded concrete walls





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