Для английского языка характерна омонимичность и лексическая и грамматическая многозначность. Очень часто хорошо знакомое слово может иметь совершенно иное значение в новом контексте. Синтаксическое и лексическое окружение помогает снимать у лексической единицы все значения, кроме одного, и правильно перевести слово и все предложение. С грамматической точки зрения, особого внимания заслуживают десемантизированные глаголы (глаголы to be и to have, многие модальные глаголы), многозначные служебные слова (предлоги, союзы).
Функции глагола to be в английском предложении
В предложении глагол to be может быть:
1. Смысловым глаголом со значением ‘быть, находиться’.Обязательным компонентом предложений с глаголом to be в этом значении является наличие обстоятельства места. В настоящем времени to be в этом случае часто не переводится: My friend is in London now ‘Мой друг (находится) сейчас в Лондоне’; He will be there till January ‘Он будет там до января’; There are many mistakes in your dictation ‘В твоем диктанте (есть)много ошибок’.
2. Глаголом-связкой в составном именном сказуемом со значением ‘быть, являться, состоять, заключаться’. Составное именное сказуемое выражает не действие, а признак подлежащего предложения (его свойство, характеристику). Именная часть составного именного сказуемого может быть выражена существительным, местоимением, прилагательным, числительным, инфинитивом, придаточным предложением и т. д.: My friend wasa worker last year, now he is a student ‘В прошлом году мой друг был рабочим, теперь он студент’; He is very busy now ‘Теперь он очень занят’; He will benineteen in a month ‘Ему исполнится девятнадцать лет через месяц’; Our task is to finish the work by 7 o'clock ‘Наша задача – закончить работу к семи часам’.
3. Модальным глаголом со значением должен (долженствование, предусмотренное договоренностью, расписанием, планом). В этом случае за ним следует инфинитив смыслового глагола: The train is to arrive at 4 o'clock ‘Поезд должен прибыть в 4 часа’; He was to get the data yesterday ‘Он должен был получить эти данные вчера’.
4. Вспомогательным глаголом и употребляется для образования:
· времен группы Continuous и Perfect Continuous в сочетании с причастием настоящего времени (+ Participle I): She is working now ‘Она работает сейчас’; She has been working since early morning ‘Она работает с раннего утра’;
· страдательного залога в сочетании с причастием прошедшего времени (+ Participle II): The letter was sent yesterday ‘Письмо было отправлено вчера’; The letter hasn't been sent yet ‘Письмо все еще не отправлено ’.
Упражнения
Упр. 137. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на значения глагола to be.
1. There are a lot of things to do. 2. It is six o'clock. He is at home at this time. 3. She is too young to understand it. 4. The film is to be on at our cinema next week. 5. He is taking his English exam tomorrow. 6. The football match will be shown on TV. 7. The door was open all day long. 8. She is to return from Moscow on Saturday afternoon. 9. It was a nasty (ненастный) day. It was raining all day long. 10. I was surprised that there was little traffic in the streets. 11. Text 7 is on page 234. 12. It is six o'clock. Are you still busy? 13. Saturday and Sunday are days off. 14. My sister will be eighteen next Saturday. 15. It is easy to translate this text. 16. Mr. Hubert is an economist. In the 1980s he was working for a big company producing computers. 17. Have you ever been in trouble?
Упр. 138. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на значения глагола to be.
1. Automation today is an important factor of chemical industrial production. It is being introduced on a wide scale in all branches of industry and agriculture as well as in medicine and everyday life. 2. In close cooperation with industrial workers our scientists and engineers are developing a lot of new types of electronic and cybernetic devices. They are to become the basis for the solution of a great number of economic and scientific problems. They will be reliable helpers of engineers and scientists. 3. A great need of rubber for industry put a problem before scientists all over the world. Now some 50 kinds of synthetic rubber are being produced by our plants and factories. 4. The Samara synthetic rubber plant is on the Volga. It went into operation in 1961. 5. Chemical materials and products are of great importance for all branches of the national economy in our country. 6. There are a lot of test-tubes of different sizes in any chemical laboratory. 7. The results of the last experiment were very important for our further work.
Упр. 139. Прокомментируйте функции глагола to be. Текст переведите.
Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, is known for the invention of dynamite. Everything that he inventedserved military purposes. He understood how terrible his inventions were, but he easily forgot about them saying: "The things which we develop are terrible indeed, but they are so interesting and so perfect technically that it makes them more attractive".
But one morning, while looking through a French newspaper Nobel read about... his own death. The paper described his inventions as "terrible means of destruction" and he was named "a dynamite king" and "a merchant of death". The thought that his name would always be connected with dynamite and death shook Nobel. He felt he could never be happy again. He decided to use all his money (about 2,000,000 pounds) for some noble purpose. According to his will, prizes for "the most outstanding achievements" in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and fight for peace are awarded every year. Nobel prizes have become the highest international scientific awards. Perhaps it's an irony of life that some of Nobel prize winners helped to make the atom bomb.
§ 50. Функции глагола to have
В предложении глагол to have может быть:
1) смысловым глаголом со значением иметь, обладать: This material has valuable qualities ‘Этот материал имеет ценные свойства’; We had a meeting yesterday ‘Вчера у нас было собрание’;
2) модальным глаголом со значением должен, следует, приходится (пришлось),(был) вынужден. В этом случае, за ним стоит инфинитив смыслового глагола с частицей to: They have to make this experiment once more ‘Им придется провести этот опыт еще раз’.
Вопросительная и отрицательная форма в Present и Past Indefinite в этом случае образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола do (did): Do they have to make this experiment? ‘ Должны ли они проводить этот эксперимент?’
3) вспомогательным глаголом для образования времен Perfect и Perfect Continuous. В этом случае глагол не переводится на русский язык, но служит показателем, лица и числа смыслового глагола: He has made an interesting experiment ‘Он выполнил интересный эксперимент’; We had finished our work by 9 o'clock yesterday ‘Мы закончили свою работу к 9 часам вчера’; We have been working since morning ‘Мы работаем с утра’;
4) частью устойчивого словосочетания (фразовых глаголов), где глагол вместе с существительным отглагольной семантики употребляется для обозначения какого-то действия (to have dinner ‘обедать’). Сам глагол to have не имеет самостоятельного значения и, следовательно, не переводится: Let's have a rest ‘Давайте отдохнем’.
Упражнения
Упр. 140. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на функции глагола to have.
1. It has been a hard day. 2. We haven't had dinner yet. 3. We have no time left. 4. She had ten minutes before she had to leave for work. 5. I hope you had a good time yesterday. 6. You can't get to the centre of the city by bus 11. You'll have to change for No.5. 7. I have never been to Italy. 8. I have to work tomorrow afternoon. 9. Have they a car? – No, they haven't bought one yet. 10. It has been snowing hard since morning. 11. We'll have a walk and then start work again. 12. I don't have enough money to buy a new computer. 13. The actor has to speak the words that he has learnt by heart. 14. I haven't had my lunch yet because I have been working hard since morning. 15. Do you have a rest after dinner? 16. We had to walk home because the last bus had gone.
Упр. 141. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на функции глагола to have.
1. Due to the Sun people have immense supplies of energy. We have to build special solar stations to convert solar energy into electrical one. 2. He had much work. He had to work hard to complete it in time. 3. He doesn't have to work very hard now. 4. As these machines will have everything necessary for automatic measurements and inspection, the workers will use them in their work. 5. You have to pass a test before you get a driving licence. 6. The light has just changed from green to red. 7. Radio has found universal recognition and application in a comparatively short period of time. 8. All the students have passed their examinations in chemistry successfully. 9. In lifting the weight we have to do work against the force of gravity. 10. Electric engines have the highest efficiency. 11. Iron, copper and lead have been known and used by man for many thousands of years. 12. Had you applied this method, you would have got better results. 13. Each industry has its own concept of automation that meets its particular production needs. 14. Automation has also had an influence on the areas of economy other than manufacturing.
Упр. 142. Переведите предложения, определив функции глаголов to be и to have.
1. Mathematics is of great importance for engineers. Every technical student is to study it for some years. 2. There are very powerful cranes for unloading ships in this port. 3. Next Monday we'll be working only five hours. 4. I have a very good dictionary to help you translate the article. 5. At last he returned to the little town where he had spent his childhood. 6. The accuracy capabilities of these automatic machines are very high. 7. These machines are to replace the old equipment of our shop. 8. Have you ever travelled by air? – Yes, I have. I often travel by air. 9. The students are not at the laboratory. 10. They are to be at the laboratory at 6 o'clock. 11. There have been several bad accidents at this corner recently. 12. You are to write your name at the top of the paper. 13. If you want to know English you have to work hard. 14. I'll have to come to the Institute at eight o'clock tomorrow. 15. The new engine is being tested in the laboratory. 16. The teacher will have to explain this problem again. 17. When he met me I was walking to the Institute and had little time to talk to him. 18. Before the experiment the substances are mixed in a large cup. 19. The carbon content was too high for the metal to be used without refining. 20. Absolutely pure iron is seldom prepared except for laboratory purposes. 21. Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. 22. Small computers are used in systems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modern office.
Функции глагола to do
Глагол do в английском предложении может быть:
1) глаголом полного лексического значения и обозначать действие. Его основные значения ‘делать’, ‘выполнять’, ‘производить’: Can you help me to do this work? ‘Ты мне поможешь выполнить эту работу?’;
2) вспомогательным глаголом:
а) для обозначения вопросительной и отрицательной конструкции с формой Present Simple (Indefinite) и Past Simple: Do you know English grammar well? ‘Вы хорошо знаете грамматику английского языка?’; Does she work hard at her English? ‘Она много работает над своим английским?’; Did they have many exams last term? ‘У них было много экзаменов в прошлом семестре?’;
б) для образования и отрицательной формы повелительного наклонения: Don't take my books, I need them ‘Не бери мои книги, они мне нужны’;
3) использован для усиления значения глагола-сказуемого: Do tell me more about it ‘Пожалуйста, расскажите мне об этом подробнее’; We do realize the importance of this discovery ‘Мы, конечно, понимаем значение этого открытия’.
4) заместителем смыслового глагола:
а) в кратких ответах на общие вопросы в форме Present Simple (Indefinite) и Past Simple: Do you like swimming? – Yes, I do. Very much ‘Ты любишь плавать? – Да. Очень люблю’;
б) во избежание повторения смыслового глагола: Don't look at me when I speak. When you do I feel nervous ‘Не смотри на меня, когда я говорю. Когда ты смотришь, я волнуюсь’.
Упражнение
Упр. 143. Переведитепредложения, содержащие глагол to do в различных значениях.
1. Does your father smoke? 2. Never do bats fail to catch insects. 3. The last experiment gave us much better results than did the previous ones. 4. How often do you go swimming? 5. These systems do result in new materials having properties not previously available. 6. The electric motor does mechanical work. 7. These particles are too small to be seen but experiments show that they do exist. 8. Semiconductors conduct electricity worse than metals do. 9. The ion does have a definite mobility that does not change with time. 10. Don't tell her anything if she doesn ' t ask you. 11. There is a second approach to the problem that does provide a slight time saving. 12. I don't t hink you should do anything in this situation. 13. Do you know how a four cycle diesel works? 14. We do insist on this experiment being made at the earliest possible opportunity. 15. Not only does the blending of various disciplines result in enhanced research, but modern materials systems themselves often are created from the integration of two or more materials. 16. Carbon dioxide does not burn, nor does it support combustion.
Функции глагола shall
1. В качестве вспомогательного глагола shall в сочетании с инфинитивом без частицы to употребляется для образования будущего времени в первом лице единственного и множественного числа, хотя в настоящее время все чаще вместо shall с первым лицом употребляется will: We shall translate this text tomorrow ‘Мы переведем этот текст завтра’.
2. В качестве модального глагола shall используется в следующих случаях:
а) в вопросах в первом лице единственного и множественного числа для получения указания, распоряжения или выражения предложения: Shall I waitfor you? ‘Мне тебя подождать?’; Shall I help you to pack the things? ‘Мне помочь тебе уложить вещи?’; Shall we meetat the theatre? ‘Встретимся в театре?’;
б) сo вторым и третьим лицом единственного и множественного числа для выражения твердого намерения говорящего: You shall have a doll ‘У тебя будет кукла’; Не shan't come here ‘Он не придет сюда’ (в смысле ‘ Я не позволю …’);
в) сo вторым и третьим лицом для выражения приказания: Each competitor shall wear a number ‘Каждый участник соревнования обязан иметь (на себе) номер’.
Функции глагола will
1. В качестве вспомогательного глагола will в сочетании с инфинитивом без частицы to употребляется для образования будущего времени со вторым и третьим лицом единственного и множественного числа: They will goon an excursion on Sunday ‘Они поедут на экскурсию в воскресенье’.
В настоящее время он также употребляется и в качестве вспомогательного глагола с первым лицом единственного и множественного числа вместо shall: We will go there at 5 o'clock ‘Мы пойдем туда в 5 часов’.
2. В качестве модального глагола will употребляется в следующих случаях:
а) в первом лице единственного и множественного числа для выражения желания, намерения, решимости: I will gowith you on an excursion ‘Я пойду с вами на экскурсию’ (я очень хочу этого); We will worktomorrow till eight o'clock часов ‘Мы будем работать завтра до восьми (по собственному желанию);
б) в вопросительной форме во втором лице для выражения вежливой просьбы, предложения, приглашения: Will youtype this, please ‘Вы напечатаете это?’ (Напечатайте это, пожалуйста); Will you have some more tea? ‘Хотите еще чаю?’;
в) в отрицательной форме для выражения нежелания, отказа выполнить просьбу, сопротивления усилиям человека (если речь идет о неодушевленных предметах): Не won't goto the director and talk with him ‘Он не хочет идти к директору и говорить с ним’; The door won't open ‘Дверь не открывается’ (Никак не могу открыть).
Функции глагола should
1. В качестве вспомогательного глагола глагол should используется:
а) для образования глагольных форм Future-in-the-Past (будущее в прошедшем) в первом лице единственного и множественного числа: I said that I should rewritemy essay ‘Я сказал, что перепишу свое сочинение’;
б) для образования глагольных форм в сослагательном наклонении. В нереальных условных предложениях should ставится в первом лице единственного и множественного числа в главном предложении: I should giveyou some money if you asked me ‘Я дал бы тебе немного денег, если бы ты попросил меня’.
Во всех остальных случаях сослагательного наклонения should употребляется во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа: The dean insisted that you should take your exams before the 1st of June ‘Декан настаивал, чтобы вы сдали экзамен до 1 июня’.
2. Глагол should в качестве модального глагол а употребляется в следующих случаях:
а) для выражения долженствования обязанности, необходимости, морального долга: You should readthis article ‘Вам следует прочесть эту статью’; You shouldn't telllies ‘Ты не должен лгать’; Не shouldn't eattoo much sugar ‘Ему нельзя есть слишком много сахара’;
б) для выражения совета, рекомендации: You should eatmore fruit and vegeta bles ‘Вам следует есть больше фруктов и овощей’;
в) для выражения сожаления, упрека или возмущения (часто с формой перфектного инфинитива): Why should I help him! ‘С какой стати я должен ему помогать!’; You should have helped him ‘Не понимаю, почему ты ему не помог’.
Функции глагола would
1. В качестве вспомогательного глагола would используется:
а) для образования глагольных форм Future-in-the-Past (будущее в прошедшем) во втором и третьем лицах единственного и множественного числа (вместо глагола will): Не said he would comeearly ‘Он сказал, что придет рано’;
б) для образования глагольных форм в сослагательном наклонении: I would liketo see you ‘Мне бы хотелось увидеть тебя’; If only she would goby train ‘Если бы только она поехала поездом’.
2. В качестве модального глагола would используется:
а) для выражения сильного желания, отказа выполнить действие. В отношении неодушевленных предметов would в этих случаях выражает сопротивление усилиям человека: Не wouldn't go to the doctor ‘Он ни за что не хочет идти к врачу’; I tried to close the case but it wouldn't ‘Я пытался закрыть чемодан, но он никак не закрывался ’;
б) для выражения повторного действия или настойчивости: Не would waitfor me for hours ‘Он, бывало, ждал меня многие часы’;
в) для выражения вежливой просьбы: Would you tellme the way to the nearest Metro station? ‘He скажете ли мне, как пройти к ближайшей станции метро?’
Упражнения
Упр. 144. Переведите предложения, определяя функцию глаголов shall, will.
1. It's a nice day. Shall we go for a walk? 2. We shall go to Sochi for our holiday. 3. If you keep your promise, you shall get whatever you want. 4. What time shall we meet tomorrow? 5. Our teacher says that we shall study the novel War and Peace by L. Tolstoy next year. 6. Where shall we go for lunch today? 7. Shall we go to the theatre? 8. I am sure the weather will be nice tomorrow. 9. We are sure that he will join us in Moscow. 10. Tom will probably arrive at about eight o'clock. 11. Tom won ' t pass his examination, he hasn't worked hard enough. 12. Will you shut the door, please? 13. I won ' t tell anyone what has happened. 14. Something is wrong with the car, it won ' t start. 15. She writes that she will come soon. 16. She doesn't think that he will not go with them. 17. It's hot. Shall I open the window? 18. Will you go to the Browns' party with me next Friday? 19. When I retire I shall have more time for my hobbies. 20. Mum! Jimmy won't give me back my pencil case. 21. This is the last time. You shall never see me again. 22. Shall we call you up or will you call back again? 23. We shall discuss this question at the conference tomorrow.
Упр. 145. Переведите предложения, определяя функцию глагола should.
1. I don't think she should work so hard. 2. It is important that she should hear it from you. 3. It is a pity that you should have forgotten about mother's birthday. 4. They suggest that such results should be very carefully considered. 5. It's a good film. You should go and see it. 6. Each country has the problem of deciding which research goals should have priority. 7. It is better that he should see everything with his own eyes. 8. You shouldn't have eaten so much chocolate. 9. It is strange that he should have refused to go on a scientific trip abroad. 10. You shouldn't believe everything you read in the newspapers. 11. I should prefer to begin my work on Monday. 12. I should like you to be more polite with my parents. 13. You should have stopped at the red lights. 14. I should advise you to read this book. 15. I promised I should call them as soon as I arrived. 16. Не should have driven more carefully. 17. Do you think I should buy this jacket?
Упр. 146. Переведите предложения, определяя функцию глагола would.
1. I would like an ice-cream. 2. Не said he would lend me some money to buy a car. 3. I wouldn't lend him money to buy а саr. 4. Would you like to try on this hat? 5. Не wouldn't come to see me. 6. Не would wait for me at the corner of our house. 7. Would you like another cup of coffee? 8. If only he would drive more slowly. 9. Each time I gave him a problem he would solve it for me. 10. I wish he would study two foreign languages. 11. Whenever Tom was angry, he would go out of the room. 12. Would you tell me the way to the nearest underground station? 13. Mother wished her son wouldn't be playing football. 14. It would be nice to have a holiday, but we can't afford it. 15. I told him to do it, but he wouldn't listen to me. 16. What would you like to do this evening? 17. Steve said that he would come to us at the weekend. 18. Would you like to go to the cinema tonight? 19. I wouldn't be happy if I lived in a big city. 20. During the war people would eat all kinds of things that we don't eat now. 21. Would you care for some more tea?
Упр. 147. Переведите предложения, определяя функцию глаголов shall, will, should, would.
1. We tried hard to set the engine in motion, but it wouldn't start. 2. The best position for the engine would be as far away from the pilot and passangers as possible. 3. Automatic interplanetary stations carrying scientific instruments will continue to serve as the principal means of studying cosmic space. 4. The use of precise symbolism should leave no room for those ambiguities which are inseparable from human language. 5. A new source of power will revolutionize technology and will help to transform our planet. 6. He proposed that we should take measures to maintain the temperature at the same level during the entire process of decomposition. 7. Не would test the devices before putting them into service. 8. Other likely structures would be those with angle being greater or less than 180°. 9. This approach would be required if the channels do not operate independently of one another. 10. We must have patience with those who would push us toward an extreme position. 11. A realistic system, however, would be subject to the same changes. 12. In this case, the target is completely defenseless and would be destroyed. 13. The engines should be made as simple as possible. 14. It is necessary that you should carry out this experiment this week. 15. Last winter they would work at the laboratory every day. 16. You shall start working at this order immediately. 17. You should have controlled the temperature throughout the experiment. 18. He insists that the equipment should be delivered and installed next week.
