.


:




:

































 

 

 

 





 

, , .

.

, , , (...), :

(2.1)

F Q ,

.

Q o

(2.2)

(2.2) Qo, ..., :

. . ..., , .

..., 1 2,

(2.3)

Q o

, , Q ,

, Q o 1 2,

,

(2.4)

.

,

U 1 2 , , () .

, (2.4)

.

3. .

 

. (1787 1854) , I, (.. , ), U :

(3.1)

R .

(3.1) ( ...): .

(3.1) (): 1 , 1 1 .

.

(): 1 1 .

R l S:

(3.2)

r .

× (×).

(1,6×10-8 ×) (1,7×10-8 ×).

. (3.2) (3.1),

(3.3)

, .

(/).

, , , (3.3)

(3.4)

(3.4) , . .

, , , , :

r r R R o t 0 o, a , ( ) 1/273 -1.

,

.

 

 

. 3.1 ( 1). , (, Al, Pb, Zn .) , (0,14 20 ), , , ( 2),.. . , , 1911 .. - .

 

4. .

 

, U. D t

dq ,

(4.1)

R, , (3.1),

(4.2)

(4.1) (4.2) ,

(4.3)

, .

: × (×) × (×). 1 × 1 1 :

1 × = 3600 × = 3,6×103 ; 1 × =103 × = 3,6×106 .

 

, , ,

(4.4)

, (4.4), (4.1) (4.2),

(4.5)

(4.5) , . . X. .

( ),

, d t

, , .

(4.6)

() ,

(4.7)

(4.6) (4.7) , .





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