, , .
.
, , , (...), :
(2.1)
F Q ,
.
Q o
(2.2)
(2.2) Qo, ..., :
. . ..., , .
..., 1 2,
(2.3)
Q o
, , Q ,
, Q o 1 2,
,
(2.4)
.
,
U 1 2 , , () .
, (2.4)
.
3. .
. (1787 1854) , I, (.. , ), U :
(3.1)
R .
(3.1) ( ...): .
(3.1) (): 1 , 1 1 .
.
(): 1 1 .
R l S:
(3.2)
r .
× (×).
(1,6×10-8 ×) (1,7×10-8 ×).
. (3.2) (3.1),
(3.3)
|
|
, .
(/).
, , , (3.3)
(3.4)
(3.4) , . .
, , , , :
r r R R o t 0 o, a , ( ) 1/273 -1.
,
.
. 3.1 ( 1). , (, Al, Pb, Zn .) , (0,14 20 ), , , ( 2),.. . , , 1911 .. - .
4. .
, U. D t
dq ,
(4.1)
R, , (3.1),
(4.2)
(4.1) (4.2) ,
(4.3)
, .
: × (×) × (×). 1 × 1 1 :
1 × = 3600 × = 3,6×103 ; 1 × =103 × = 3,6×106 .
, , ,
(4.4)
, (4.4), (4.1) (4.2),
(4.5)
(4.5) , . . X. .
( ),
, d t
, , .
(4.6)
() ,
(4.7)
(4.6) (4.7) , .