The basic principle of learning is reinforcement. When the student or learner does something that leads to success he is much more likely to repeat it; when he fails, he is not likely to repeat it. The reinforcements do not necessarily have to occur every time the pupil responds. Occasional, or partial, reinforcement can be some times more effective than constant reinforcement. The reinforcement can be either reward or avoidance of punishment. It is preferable to learn under the incentive of rewards rather than the threat of punishments.
Some degree of motivation is also essential for efficient learning. Human beings can sometimes acquire knowledge without deliberate effort, but the results are limited. This type of learning, which occurs without intention or obvious cause, is called latent learning.One definition of it is: any learning which is not immediately manifested in performance.
The only way we can be sure that learning has taken place is if it is manifested in performance. The performance is brought forth usually under the offer of some sort of reward which the individual is motivated to acquire. So, we may say that we learn better if we want or need to learn.
Many different kinds of conditions of motivation affect the way we learn. If we are trying to teach someone a lesson, his desire to learn will enhance his achievement; but too much motivation can lead to extreme anxiety and excitement which will actually interfere with the learning process. Moderate, not intense desire is needed. External rewards such as marks for classroom work in a school, will be effective only if they are what the student wants. Not only must the reward be desired, but the material to be learned must also have meaning.
Another important condition, especially in the development of skills, is distribution. Distribution of learning and practice allows the material or skill to be much better assimilated. Just as excessive motivation interferes with success, so does over-concentrated practice. Study and learning for examinations, for example, should be spread over the entire term and not crammed into the few days before the test. This is not to say that cramming will be ineffective. The performance upon which the student is evaluated is the one he delivers on the examination day. If cramming helps him for that day, then he should do it. If, however, he wants to retain the material and make a more permanent gain in learning, then the learning should be acquired over a longer period.
Transfer of training is another very important concept; what has been learned in one situation can be used in other situations. A person who has learned to drive one model of car is normally able to drive another model. This enhanced learning experience is called positive transfer. Yet, at the same time, interference may also occur. This interference in effective performance, called negative transfer, is accentuated by the similarity in situation.
Complex learning is a process of many associations in knowledge, skills, and attitudes. We must also be able to generalize from these associations and apply them in new situations. This process is called convergent or deductive thinking.
We learn to think and solve problems by both convergent (deductive) and divergent (inductive) thinking.
The most important single feature of complex human learning is language. Languages are made up of signs and symbols, and these must be learned in the same way as other things are learned. Once they have been learned then they and the way the brain associates them directly influence our further learning
(L.S. Skurnik, F. George. Psychology for Everyman. Penguin Books. 1972. P. 37 41)
Exercises
