| (Tense) | () (Aspect) | |||
| (), (Simple, or Indefinite) | (), (Continuous, or Progressive) | (Perfect) | - (Perfect +Continuous) | |
   (Present)
| V, Vs Do / Does (ask / asks) | am is Ving are (asking) | have (has) + V3 (have / has asked) | have (has) been Ving (have / has been asking) |
  (Past)
| V-ed Did (asked) | was Ving were (asking) | had V3 (had asked) | had been Ving (asking) |
| (Future) | will / shall V (ll ask) | will / shall be Ving (asking) | will have V3 (asked) | - |
. 1. : V (Infinitive), V2 (Past Indefinite), V3 (Participle II).
2. - ed (Participle II).
3. V2, V3 . ( ).
-
| Tense () | (aspect) | ||
| Indefinite (Simple) | Continuous (Progressive) | Perfect | |
     Present
| (I) am He / she / it is V3 We / you / they are | am is being V3 are | have / has been V3 |
    Past
| was V3 were | was being V3 were | had been V3 |
    Future
| shall V3 will | shall have been V3 will |
.
1. , , .
2. to be - (. .7) Participle II . II V2, V3.
3. , , , , , . , , by, with.
. The next morning I was awakened by the telephone. .
Law is also made by courts. .
St. Petersburg was founded by Peter I in 1703. - I 1703 .
When was the doctor sent for? ?
- .
1. My elder sister (to have) a music lesson. She always (to have) a music lesson on Friday.
2. Who (to sing) in the next room?
3. Father (to read) a newspaper. He usually (to read) something before going to bed.
4. Mother (to cook) breakfast in the kitchen. She always (to cook) in the mornings.
5. Who you (to wait) for? I (to wait) for Ann, we must leave in the minutes.
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6. It often (to rain) in autumn.
7. (not to go) out, it (to rain) heavily.
8. You (to understand) the use of the Present Indefinite and the Present Continuous quite well?
9. What you (to write)? You (to make) notes about the two present tenses?
10. Why you (to smile), Kitty?
11. I often (to meet) you at the corner of this street. You (to wait) anybody?
12. We (to walk) in silence for a long time. Nobody (to want) to speak
13. He (to wait) here for some time, but nobody (to come).
14. I just (to have) breakfast when the telephone (to ring).
15. I (to speak) to her several times, but she (to read) and (not to hear) me.
16. Ann (to drop) two cups when she (to wash) up last night, but neither of the cups (to break).
17. The old man who (to sit) beside me (to keep) silence.
18. He (to remember) the days when he first (to go) to college.
19. We (to talk) about Jim when he (to run) into the room.
20. I (to stand) at the window for some time; the sun (to shine) and I (to decide) to go for a walk.
21. She (to teach) Russian for three years when she (to live) in France.
- .
1. They often invite me to their parties.
2. People speak English in different parts of the world.
3. One uses milk for making butter.
4. We form the Passive Voice with the help of the verb to be.
5. They build a lot of houses in this district every year.
6. People speak much of him.
7. They built this house in 1997.
8. Somebody locked the front door.
9. They punished the boy for that.
10. They showed me the way to the Academy.
11. They recommended us several articles on Criminal Law.
12. Our students won the sport competition.
- .
1. I (ask) at the lesson yesterday.
2. Many houses (build) in our town every year.
3. This work (do) tomorrow.
4. Basketball (play) all year round.
5. Many houses (burn) during the Great Fire in London.
6. Moscow (found) in 1147.
7. This question (settle) as soon as they arrive.
8. The answer to this question can (find) in the encyclopedia.
9. When I came home, the sweets (eat).
10. Americas first college, Harvard, (found) in Massachusetts in 1636.
11. The bridge (reconstruct) by tomorrow morning.
3. (, , )
(. )
,
1. The textbooks () some years ago are not useful now.
2. The book () now will be published in some months.
3. () this book the author took into consideration new scientific discoveries.
4. ( ), the book was published several times.
5. She went away () him alone.
6. Special attention should be paid to the experiments () now in riminalistics.
, to
1. I likeread books but now Id rather go for a walk.
2. You havetake part in the conference.
3. We heard the prosecutormake speech.
4. We mustdo something; we cant go on living like that.
5. The next step isdouble our efforts.
, c ing- .
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1. We spend much more time speaking than writing or reading.
2. And who is to be responsible for breaking laws?
3. While holding the seminar the professor spoke about his practical experience.
4. Learning to compare is learning to think.
5. The test being carried out is of great significance.
6. Generally speaking the problem is not so easy as it seems to be.
7. Trying the case the judge came across a number of difficulties.
8. The officer investigating a criminal case must be very attentive at
the crime scene.
II.
1. . , .
1. To fight crime successfully we must know laws well.
2. As our meeting was to be held at 5 p.m. we had to finish our work earlier than usual.
3. All government in America has the dual () character of both Federal and State Government.
4. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
5. This work will have been done by the end of the week.
6. All citizens are obliged to observe laws.
7. The Supreme Court justices are nominated by the President but must be approved by the Senate.
8. The new family code is not published yet.
9. After sleeping for about an hour he was awakened by a loud voice.
10. I dislike being disturbed.
11. Do you mind my smoking here?
12. There is no possibility that we shall see him this week.
13. This act being a minor offence, the offender was brought before the magistrate's court.
14. The sentence of the court was three years' imprisonment.
15. The judges ought to act according to the law.
16. If the government wishes, a new trial with a new jury can be held.
17. That offence being defined as misdemeanor, the punishment for it is a fine.
18. The expert proved both crimes to have been committed by the same person.
19. No one can be deprived () of freedom unless sentenced by a court.
20. As neither the procurator nor the defendant made any appeals to a higher court, the sentence acquired legal force.
21. The prosecutor is preparing to speak on the case tried by the county court.
22. Fingerprints are known to have been used as evidence since ancient times.
23. His advocate representing him at the trial, the accused did not make any statement himself.
24. That question was discussed at the previous conference.
25. The regional courts hear and determine cases that are similar in character to those tried by district courts but which are of a more serious nature.
5. .
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
Administrative law is concerned with public authorities. It comprises the law relating to the formation, powers and duties of such authorities and the procedures involved when they are formed or where their powers are exercised, or duties fulfilled. It is also concerned with the relationships between such public authorities, between the authorities and their employers and between them and the public at large.
Administrative law can be seen as a network of controls over the use of public powers, but it also provides the means by which the workload of public authorities can be successfully achieved. It provides the means for getting things done.
The public authorities in question extend from the Crown through the nationalized industries, the Commission for Racial Equality, ACAS (the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitrian Service), the BBC and Independent Broadcasting. Authority, local government, and many others, including the maze of administrative tribunals are set up, among other things, to settle disputes about the use of public power.
Notes
public authorities
the procedures involved
powers are exercised
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at large
workload
in question . ,
Conciliation
the maze .
1. What is administrative law concerned with?
2. Can administrative law be seen as a network of controls over the use of public powers? Prove it.
3. .
THE LAW OF TORTS
Tort: wrongful act that causes injury to a person or property and for which the law allows a claim under civil law, the law in the United States that governs the relationships between individuals - for example, marriage, contracts, or injuries. The civil law concerning torts attempts to remedy injuries suffered by individuals or corporations by forcing the party who caused the harm to compensate the victim. In contrast, criminal law governs the relationship between the government (state) and the individual and punishes a person who acts in a way considered harmful to society as a whole.
Both torts and contracts are governed by civil law, but the duty that exists between the person who commits a tort and the person injured does not result from an agreement or contract. In other words, a person does not have to form a contract with another person in order to prevent that person from assaulting him or her. Instead, society requires that individuals act in certain ways and requires them to provide compensation if they injure someone because they failed to act in the required manner.
In the 1990s lawsuits based on tort made up nearly half of all lawsuits in the United States. Over 1.5 million tort claims are filed every year in the United States. The majority of tort cases involve automobile accidents, medical malpractice, or defective products.
Notes
law of torts
tort , ,
wrongful act , ,
to cause injury , ,
to govern the relationships between individuals
to remedy injuries ()
to suffer injuries , ,
to force
to cause the harm
to compensate ,
victim
to punish
who acts in a way considered harmful to society
,
to commit a tort
to result from
to form a contract
to assault , ,
to provide compensation
in the required manner
lawsuit
automobile accidents
medical malpractice ,
defective products
1. What is a tort?
2. What is law of torts concerned with?
3. What is the difference between civil law and law of torts?
4. What are most typical tort claims?
4. .
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Constitutional law, the law of the British constitution, is often said to be unwritten in the sense that there is no single document in Britain called 'The Constitution'. However, every British protectorate and colony has one, and so does nearly every country in the world. The reasons for this state of affairs are historical. There has been no fresh start after a revolution or other landmark in our history, unlike in the United States or Malaysia. Nevertheless, there are many documents from which the British constitutional law can be collected. There are Acts of Parliament, like the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, the Act of Union with Scotland 1707 and the European Communities Act of 1972, all of which contain major rules of constitutional law. Rules of more detailed importance are to be found in such statutes as the Representation of the People Acts 1983 and 1985, the Peerage Act 1963, the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949 and the Local Government Act 1988, among many others. It seems that every year statutes are made which add to the constitutional law.
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Further to this the law is found in common law rules such as the fundamental rule which pronounces that Parliament is sovereign, a rule now affected by the European Communities Act 1972. Furthermore there is a collection of conventions which applies to the constitution and there are the residual powers within the royal prerogative. Finally there exists the law and custom of Parliament itself, concerning its functions, procedures, privileges and immunities. This, then, is the subject matter of constitutional law.
Notes
the residual powers
the royal prerogative
immunity
1. From which documents can the British constitutional law be collected?
2. Can constitutional law be found in common law rules?
3. Is there a collection applied to constitutions?
1
