4. Adjective as a notional part of speech.
The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
In English Adjectives are divided into qualitative (denote the quality, i.e.size, shape, colour, state of the thing) and relative (denote the material, place, etc.).
Word order of adjectives.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives.
Three degrees of comparison:
1. positive (expresses a quality without comparison)
2. comparative (denotes a higher degree of quality)
3. superlative (denotes the highest degree)
a tall girl - a tall er girl - the tall est girl
an interesting book - a more interesting book - the most interesting book
5. Pronoun as a notional part of speech.
The pronoun is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them. , ' , .
Classification of the pronouns.
6. Adverb as a notional part of speech.
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
, 䳿, ? ? ? ? ?
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Classification and degrees of comparison of adverbs.
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative () adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.);
(The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly.
There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound () adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite () adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑er and the superlative by adding - est.
fast faster fastest
hard harder hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely more wisely most wisely
beautifully more beautifully most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well better best
badly worse worst
much more most
little less least
According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency () (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
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(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence () (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (, ) (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.
7. Numerals as a notional part of speech.
The numeral is a part of speech that indicates the number of or the order of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly, numerals are divided into cardinals () (cardinal numerals) and ordinals (ordinal numbers).
Grammatical characteristics of numerals.
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting.
As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred, thousand, million); those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix ‑teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.); the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix ‑ty (twenty, thirty, etc.).
The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twenty-two, thirty-five, etc.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things. .
With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix ‑ th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.).
8. Verb as a notional part of speech. Grammatical characteristics of verb..
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. It has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense,aspect, voice and mood.
These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.
Verbs may be transitive and intransitive. ij .
Verbs have finite forms which can be used as the predicate of sentence and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
1. simple (read, live, hide, speak),
2. derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, inherit, originate, undo);
3. compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, brow-beat);
4. composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, look after, give up)
Verbs have their own stem-building elements:
postfixes: -fy (simplify, magnify, identify)
-ize (realize, fertilize, standardize)
-ate (activate, captivate)
prefixes: re- (rewrite, restart, replant)
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mis- (misuse, misunderstand, misstate)
un- (uncover, uncouple, uncrown)
de- (depose, depress, derange) and so on.
Verbal categories
As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
The category of tense is very clearly expressed in the forms of the English verb. This category denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled.
The category of aspect shows the way in which the action develops.
There are 4 groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous.
The Indefinite form has no aspect characteristics whatever, the Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms denote both time and aspect relations.
Each of these forms includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Future in the Past, i.e. future from the point of view of the past. Thus there are 16 tenses in English.
Voice is the category of the verb which indicates relation of the predicate to the subject and the object. Voice 䳺, ' '.
There are three voices in English: the active voice, the passive voice, and the neuter-reflexive voice.
The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate.
The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted the subject is acted upon.
The neuter-reflexive voice shows that the action expressed by the predicate passes on to the subject. This voice is formed by means of a reflexive pronoun.
Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality. , 䳿, 䳺 .
We distinguish the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood.
, , .
9. The formation and use of the Present Simple in the Active Voice.
1. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.
In the 3rd person singular the ending ‑s is added.
After a sibilant represented in spelling by s, ss, ch, sh, tch, x, z and after the vowel o, ‑es is added: he writes, he reads, he speaks; he passes, he pushes, he watches, he teaches; he goes, he does. es.
2. The pronunciation of the ending -s (-es) depends on the sound preceding it.
[iz] after the sibilants [s], [z], [th], [dz], [sh]: passes ["pesiz], pushes ["pushiz], teaches ["tichiz];
[z] after voiced non-sibilants and vowels: reads [ridz], lives [lIvz], sees [siz];
[s] after voiceless non-sibilants: works [works], wants [wonts].
3. In the third person singular we find the following orthographical change:
A final is changed into i if it is preceded by a consonant and then ‑es is added: to study he studies; to try he tries.
After a vowel is kept unchanged: to play he plays; to stay he stays.
4. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the verb to do and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.
| Affirmative () | Interrogative () | Negative () |
| I work He works She works We work You work They work | Do I work? Does he work? Does she work? Do we work? Do you work? Do they work? | I do not work He does not work She does not work We do not work You do not work They do not work |
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The Present Indefinite is used to denote:
1. Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use. , .
The Browns go to the seaside every summer.
The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.
2. Actions and states characterizing a given person. , .
She has many accomplishments: shesings and plays the piano beautifully.
3. Universal truths, something which is eternally true. , .
Magnet attracts iron. The earthrotates round its axis.
4. Actions going on at the present moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form).
I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.
I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.
5. A future action:
(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, on condition that, provided.
˲²
...Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before yougo?
I promise not to try to see Robert again till heasks for me.
(b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave etc. The future action is regarded as something fixed.
䳺 . .
The train leave s at 10 tomorrow. 10 .
