, , : , , , . , X.
a b - X. ( ).
2.1. a b, X, , :
2.1. " " " ", R, " ":
.
2.2. a b, X, , , :
" ".
2.3. a b, X, a\b, , :
2.3. " " " " R "":
.
2.4. " " " ", , " ".
2.4. a, X, , X x X, :
x y .
2.5. " " R " ":
.
, - , , , .
- , . .
2.5. , a, , , a a-1:
.
2.6. " " R "":
.
2.7. " " " ".
a-1 (. 4).
() a () a-1
. 4. a a-1
, , , a-1 ( 5).
() a () a-1
. 5. a a-1
2.6. a b, X, ab, (x, z), , :
|
|
.
2.8. " " " " " ", . . " ".
a b X , (x, z) a b , x z , a, - b.
6 , a ( ) b ( ), , ab ba.
() a b () ab
() ab
. 6. (ab ba)
, 6, , .
a b, , " " , :
0 0 = 0, 0 1 = 1, 1 0 = 1, 1 1 = 1.
M = (aij), M = (bjk), (i, j, k = 1, 2, , n),
M ab = (cik),
cik = ai1 b1k ain bnk
M ab M a M b. , M ab ab.
2.9. ab ba a b, 6.
M a M b ( a, b, c, d, ).
.
2.7. a , x y , X:
z0 = x, z1, z2,..., zn = y,
a:
z0 a z1, z1 a z2,..., zn-1 a zn.
2.10. 7 , a .
. 7. a
a M a a:
:
.