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, , : , , , . , X.

a b - X. ( ).

2.1. a b, X, , :

2.1. " " " ", R, " ":

.

2.2. a b, X, , , :

" ".

2.3. a b, X, a\b, , :

2.3. " " " " R "":

.

2.4. " " " ", , " ".

2.4. a, X, , X x X, :

x y .

2.5. " " R " ":

.

, - , , , .

- , . .

2.5. , a, , , a a-1:

.

2.6. " " R "":

.

2.7. " " " ".

a-1 (. 4).

() a () a-1

. 4. a a-1

, , , a-1 ( 5).

() a () a-1

. 5. a a-1

2.6. a b, X, ab, (x, z), , :

.

2.8. " " " " " ", . . " ".

a b X , (x, z) a b , x z , a, - b.

6 , a ( ) b ( ), , ab ba.

() a b () ab

() ab

. 6. (ab ba)

, 6, , .

a b, , " " , :

0 0 = 0, 0 1 = 1, 1 0 = 1, 1 1 = 1.

M = (aij), M = (bjk), (i, j, k = 1, 2, , n),

M ab = (cik),

cik = ai1 b1k ain bnk

M ab M a M b. , M ab ab.

2.9. ab ba a b, 6.

M a M b ( a, b, c, d, ).

.

2.7. a , x y , X:

z0 = x, z1, z2,..., zn = y,

a:

z0 a z1, z1 a z2,..., zn-1 a zn.

2.10. 7 , a .

. 7. a

a M a a:

:

.





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