A Tale of Two Cities - The Great Expectations - The Bleak House - The Old Curiosity Shop - The Christmas Carol - Our Mutual Friend-
Jane Austen -
Pride and Prejudice - Sense and Sensibility - Northanger Abbey - Persuasion
Charlotte Bronte - Jane Eyre -
Emily Bronte -
Wuthering Heights - 246
Elizabeth Gaskell-
North and South -
Sylvia's Lovers -
Wives and Daughters - George Eliot -
Scenes from Clerical Life -
Mill on the Floss -
Middlemarch - Arthur Conan Doyle -
A Study in Scarlet -
The Sign of the Four -
The Hound of the Baskervilles -
The Valley of Fear - David Herbert Lawrence -
Lady Chatterley 's Lover -
The Rainbow -
Sons and Lovers - Rudyard Kipling -
Plain Tales from the Hills -
The Ballad of East and West -
Jungle Books -
Just So Stories -
of Pook's Hill -
Rewards and Fairies -
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.■■
UNIT 13.
Information Society
1.. , .
Computers and humans are two radically different types of "things." Despite the early hopes of artificial intelligence theorists, to date no computer has been able to demonstrate the sort of consciousness and understanding that is characteristic of people. Many researchers are genuinely cynical about the possibility of artificial intelligence ever existing. We frequently use the terms like "intelligence" when referring to computers. But this kind of language usage is metaphorical. If we mean something more than just a metaphorical parallel, then we must consider carefully what exactly we mean by "intelligent machines," and be prepared to answer the problems of artificial intelligence. Some people see computers becoming more like humans. It is because we impart a "shadow of our intelligence" to computers that they constitute a genuine threat. However, computers are more and more able to appear humanlike: through more sophisticated imitation, through the greater complexity of functions they can perform, even, partly, through their greater prevalence as cultural icons in society.
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Consider, for a moment, the following quotes: "Unless we can recollect ourselves in the presence of our intelligent artefacts, we have no future". "Scholars and engineers hover like winged angels over a high-tech cradle, singing the algorithms and structures of their minds into silicon receptacles, and eagerly nurturing the first glimmers of intelligence in the machine-child." and even, "The technological Djinn, now loosed from all restraints, tempt us with visions of a surreal future. It is a future with robots who sur-
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pass their masters in dexterity and wit; intelligent agents who roam the Net on our behalf, seeking the informational elixir that will make us whole. Not all of this is idle or fantastic speculation, even if it is the rather standard gush about our computerised future. Few observers can see any clear limits to what the networked computer might eventually accomplish. It is this stunning, wide-open potential that leads one to wonder what the Djinn will ask us in return for the gift." These quotes strongly imply that computers and humans share an equivalent sort of intelligence. It is a mistake to think that the computers have actually become more humanlike. But it is extremely plausible, indeed almost certain, that many people are experiencing computers as increasingly humanlike.
2. , 1.
for the most creative people are often not the best team players, and there are not enough top positions in a single organisation to keep them all happy. Let them go their separate ways, and each creates his own empire, large or small, and devotes more time to the role of emperor than to the role of problem solver. The principals still get together at meetings. They still visit one another. But the time scale of their communication stretches out, and the correlation among mental models degenerate between meetings so that it may take a year to do a week's communicating. There has to be some way of facilitating communication among people without bringing them together in one place.
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4. .
appreciate the importance the new computer-aided communication can have, one must consider the dynamics of "critical mass," as it applies to co-operation in creative endeavour. Take any problem worthy of the name, and you find only a few people who can contribute effectively to its solution. Those people must be brought into close intellectual partnership so that their ideas can come into contact with one another. But bring these people together physically in one place to form a team, and you have trouble,
The Internet has revolutionised the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this excit-
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ing new technology. The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the Global Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological, organisational, and community. And its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations.
6. .
, -. 1980- , , TCP/IP. , , - . TCP/IP . , , . . - . , -
, . , -.
7. . .
Browser
A software program that is used to look at various kinds of Internet resources. Browser is a specific kind of client program that enables to contact and obtain data from a server software program on another computer, often across a great distance.
Electronic Mail. Messages, usually text, sent from one person to another via computer. E-mail can also be sent automatically to a large number of addresses, called mailing list.
Homepage
Originally, the web page that the browser is set to use when it starts up. The more common meaning refers to the main web page for a business, organisation, person or simply the main page out of a collection of web pages.
Host
Any computer on a network that is a repository for services available to other computers on the network. It is quite common to have one host machine provide several services, such as WWW.
Java
A network-oriented programming language specifically designed for writing programs that can be safely downloaded to a computer through the Internet and immediately run without fear of viruses or other harm to the computer or files. Using small Java programs (called applets), web pages
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can include functions such as animations, calculators, and other fancy tricks.
Login
The account name used to gain access to a computer system. It is not secret unlike the password. Also the act of entering into a computer system.
Server
A computer, or a software package, that provides a specific kind of service to software running on other computers. The term can refer to a particular piece of software, such as a WWW server, or to the machine on which the software is running. A single server machine could have several different server software packages running on it.
8. .
The Internet began as a Cold War project to create a communications network that was immune to a nuclear attack. In the 1969, the US government created ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), connecting four western universities and allowing researchers to use the main frames of any of the networked institutions. New connections were soon added to the network, bringing the number of nodes up to 23 in 1971, 111 in 1977, and up to almost 4 million in 1994. As the size of the network grew so did its capabilities. In its first 25 years, the Internet added features such as file transfer, email, usenet news, and eventually HTML. Now, new developments come to the Net one right after the other. It is this explosive growth in recent years that has captured the imagination of computer users the world over.
. .
FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) - A very common method of moving files between two Internet sites. FTP is a special way to login to another Internet site for the purposes of retrieving and / or sending files. There are many
Internet sites that have established publicly accessible repositories of material that can be obtained using FTP, by logging in using the account name anonymous, thus these sites are called anonymous FTP servers.
HTML
(HyperText Markup Language) - The coding language used to create Hypertext documents (documents that contain links to other documents -words or phrases that can be chosen by a reader and which cause another document to be retrieved and displayed) for use on WWW. HTML looks a lot like old-fashioned typesetting code, where a block of text is surrounded with codes that indicate how it should appear. Additionally, in HTML a block of text, or a word can be specified to link to another file on the Internet. HTML files are meant to be viewed using browsers.
HTTP
(HyperText Transport Protocol) - The protocol for moving hypertext files across the Internet. It requires a HTTP client program on one end, and an HTTP server program on the other end. HTTP is the most important protocol used in WWW.
LAN
(Local Area Network) - A computer network limited to the immediate area, usually the same building or floor of a building, although sometimes LAN can be as large as to cover a whole University campus.
TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) - The suite of protocols that defines the Internet. TCP/IP software is available for every major kind of computer operating system. To be truly on the Internet, the computer must have /I software.
URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) - The standard way to give the address of any resource on the Internet that is part of WWW.
WWW
(World Wide Web, or simply the web) - The universe of hypertext servers which allow text, graphics, sound files, etc. to be mixed together.
1 ft . 1866: In the beginning was the Cable...
The Atlantic cable of 1858 was established to carry instantaneous communications across the ocean for the first time.
Although the laying of this first cable was seen as a landmark event in society, it was a technical failure. It only remained in service a few days.
Subsequent cables laid in 1866 were completely successful and compare to events like the moon landing of a century later. The cable remained in use for almost 100 years.
1957: Sputnik has launched ARPA
President Dwight D. Eisenhower saw the need for the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) after the Soviet Union's 1957 launch of Sputnik.
The organisation united some of America's most brilliant people, who developed the United States' first successful satellite in 18 months. Several years later ARPA began to focus on computer networking and communications technology.
In 1962, Dr. J.C.R. Licklider was chosen to head ARPA's research in improving the military's use of computer technology. Licklider was a visionary who sought to make the government's use of computers more interactive. To quickly expand technology, Licklider saw the need to move ARPA's contracts from the private sector to universities and laid the foundations for what would become the ARPANET.
1972: First public demonstration of ARPANET
In late 1971, Larry Roberts decided that people needed serious motivation to get things going. In October 1972 there was to be an International Conference on Computer Communications, so Larry asked Bob Kahn to organise a public demonstration of the ARPANET.
The demo was a roaring success, much to the surprise of the people at AT&T who were sceptical about whether it would work.
11. .
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1. Considering the complexity of the problem, the decision was reached
at a rather early date.
2. Their best expectations about capital market integration realised,
people can face their future without fear.
3. The scholars are interested in seeing the post-war experience with
trade liberalisation confirmed.
4. Over the "non-dissemination" draft treaty, harmony is to be expected -
and a powerful attempt to get it signed by many nations.
5. Suddenly imposing capital controls, the government tried to avoid a
financial crisis.
6. Yesterday at Hyde Park we saw reasonable people questioning the
prudence of liberal policies toward international capital flows for all
countries in all circumstances.
7. The President said in a message accompanying the document that it
would stop runaway inflation and revitalised the economy if given a
chance; he asked Congress to join him in a quest to move America back
toward economic sanity.
8. All his criticism was reserved for the peacemongers who want the
Army withdrawn from their country.
9. Being the most powerful of all industrial countries, the United States
pushed inevitably ahead for world mastery with every available means
at its command.
10. Proponents of European integration are heard taking into account
viewpoints of the opposition.
11. During the work-to-rule campaign the workers saw their efforts wasted
because some were induced to work extra hours.
12. With open policies toward international trade growing, it is possible
that economic growth could become the most important factor contrib
uting to the creation of united Europe.
14. , . .
1. The task of the organisation is overseeing the development and opera
tion of the new computer programs that are used to hamper international
communications.
2. Some social organisations that represent more than a half-million gov
ernment blue-colours, demanded a fifteen percent pay raise.
3. A Social Democratic Party with Mr Smith as leader was launched, the
government hoped to channel the discontent into a peaceful movement.
4. Though the President wanted to reject an outrageously optimistic fore
cast that had been produced by some of his advisers, economic perspec
tives of the country seemed bright.
5. The peoples of all countries are vitally interested in seeing further steps
that have been recently taken at the European Conference.
6. A large amount of work was commissioned by the management, the
programmers were unable to release the software in time.
7. In another test of strength which is putting strain on the community,
some advanced countries have refused to make payments that have been
called for by the European Parliament to finance social and regional
projects in less developed regions.
8. The draft document included resolutions that called for the creation of
the integrated European society.
9. The president of the Chamber of Commerce was speaking, the
Chamber's annual general meeting after a luncheon was attended by the
high officials.
10. Decisions have been taken at Brussels, which, if they were carried out,
would lead straight to further controversies.
11. The newspapers reported the council to meet in session last week in the
course of far-ranging economic talks.
12. The Chairman interrupted the debates when news of a technological
breakthrow arrived.
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1 6. .
Hardware
, ; , (, ..) ; : by hardware - ( ), bare hardware - , basic hardware - , common hardware - , compatible hardware - , cryptographic hardware - , microprocessor-based hardware - , plug-and-play hardware - , , support hardware - , throwaway hardware -
, hardware and software package - - , soft hardware - -
Information
I) , , (on, about): to furnish / give / offer / provide information - , , to collect / dig up / find / gather information - , to extract information - , to classify / declassify information - / , to divulge / leak information - , to feed information (into a computer) - ( ), to retrieve information (from a computer) - ( ), to cover up / suppress / withhold information - , computerised / digital information - , fresh information - , irrelevant information - , , . Syn: news, intelligence; 2) , , . Syn: knowledge
Node
; ; , : backbone node - , , base node - , central node - , datum node - , master / network node - , root node - , production node - , slave node -
Processor
, : microprocessor - , central / central data / centre processor - (syn: central processing unit), basic processor - , host / master processor - , attached processor - , support processor - , back-end processor - , , general-purpose processor - , node processor - , real-time processor - ( ), on-line processor - , , , off-line / stand-alone processor - -
, simulation processor - , system processor - , word / text processor - ( ), Pentium processor -
Program
\. . 1) , , : to carry out / implement a program - / , to evaluate a program - - , to introduce a program - / , to launch a program - - , to terminate a program - - / , long-range / short-range program - / , pilot program - ; 2) , : computer program; application program - , common program - , complete program - , hardware program - - , help program - , host program - , initial loading program - , running program - , self-diagnostic program - , teaching program - , user program - , editor program - , program piracy - . Syn: application, software
2. v. ; , : to program in - - (programming language - , syn: computer language, machine language)
Software
, : computer software; proprietary software - , , public-domain software - , operational / OS level / system software - , , application software - , bundled software - , , canned / common / standard software - , compatible software -
, embedded software - , interactive software - , pre-release software - , prototype software - , startup software - , user software - , database software - , educational software - , recognition software - (, ), word-processing software - , silicon software, software in silicon - , software artefacts - , software configuration - , software designer - . Syn: program
Virtual
1) , ; 2) : virtual value - ; 3) : virtual reality - / , virtual address - , virtual community - ( , ), virtual mode - , virtual private network - ( ), virtual processor - , virtual server -
1 7. .
OS level software - - off-line processor - - virtual community - embedded software - - to dig up information - - - plug-and-play hardware - node processor - - - real-time processor - - - throwaway hardware -, - pilot program - - - - to dig up information - base node - canned software - , - soft hardware - to program in - to withhold information -
- virtual value - - -host program - silicon software - input / output processor - - proprietary software - , - to offer information - to introduce a program - -centre processor - digital information - to implement a program - - slave node - - to leak information - - - to terminate a program.
18. , , .
As life and technology merge, they will both become more interesting.
{Glenn Zorpette and Carol Ezzell)
| (Sydney Brenner) (Lord Leverhulme) (Sir John Cadman) |
The pace that kills is the crawl.
What oil is doing today, coal will do again tomorrow.
| support hardware initial loading program text processor fresh information teaching program irrelevant information central data processor |
word-processing software central processing unit inessential data educational software startup software ancillary equipment latest news
19. .
1. Why are computers and humans different types of "things"?
2. How can the importance of the new computer-aided communication be
appreciated?
| 3. 4. 5. 6. |
What is the ARPANET? How did it come into being?
What computer terms and abbreviations do you know?
How did the Internet begin? In what direction did it evolve?
What are the prospects of the development of the information society?
20. . .
* Every advance in science leaves morality in its ancient balance; and it depends still on the inscrutable soul of man whether any discovery is mainly a benefit or mainly a calamity.
(Gilbert Keith Chesterton)
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