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UNIT 14.
Biotechnology
1. .
In the next decade or two, several of the most important but disparate scientific and engineering achievements of the twentieth century - the blossoming of electronics, the discovery of DNA and the elucidation of human genetics - will be the basis for leaps in technology that will extend, enhance or augment human capabilities far more directly, personally and powerfully than ever before. The heady assortment of biotechnologies, implants, wearables, artificial environments, synthetic sensations, and even demographic and societal shifts defies any attempt at concise categorisation. As scientists and engineers unleash fully the power of the gene and of the electron, they will transform bits and pieces of the most fundamental facets of our lives, including eating and reproducing, staying healthy, being entertained and recovering from serious illness. Big changes could even be in store for what we wear, how we attract mates and how we stave off the debilitating effects of getting older. Within a decade, we will see a cloned human being, replacement hearts and livers, custom-grown from the recipient's own versatile stem cells.
Virtual reality becomes far more vivid and compelling by adding the senses of smell and touch to those of sight and sound. Essentially all the predicted developments will follow directly from technologies or advances that have already been achieved in the laboratory. Take that genetic muscle vaccine: a University of Pennsylvania researcher is exercising laboratory mice whose unnaturally muscular hind legs were created by injection. He has little doubt about the suitability of the treatment for humans. How-
ever, neurosurgeon Robert J. White, geneticist Dean Hamer and engineer-entrepreneur Ray Kurzweil stake out positions that are controversial among their peers. R.J. White raises the possibility of making the Frankenstein myth a reality as he declares that medical science is now capable of transplanting a human head onto a different body. Hamer uses today's scientific fact and his best guesses about tomorrow's technology to sketch a fictional account of a couple in the year 2250 customising the genes that will underlie their baby's behaviour and personality. Kutzweil argues not only that machines will eventually have human thoughts, emotions and consciousness but that their ability to share knowledge instantaneously will inexorably push them far past us in every category of endeavour, mental and otherwise.
if. 1 , . .
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| 1. leap in technology 2. disparate scientific achieve ment 3. fundamental facet of life 4. recovering from serious illness 5. elucidation of human genetics 6. fictional account 7. custom-grown replacement or gan 8. heady assortment 9. versatile stem cell |
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American scientists have discovered that cloning produces genetic imbalances, which could explain why so many cloned animals are stillborn or suffer from medical problems after birth and die prematurely. The same flaws could also jeopardise the use of stem cells derived from cloned human embryos produced for "therapeutic" purposes. The resulting tissues would be too defective to repair damaged organs, the scientists said. "Currently, cloning technology is immature and shouldn't be expanded out to humans," said assistant professor of developmental biology. "It's bad news at the moment for therapeutic cloning but it's good news in that we're realising what needs to be overcome," she said. The study, published in the journal Nature Genetics, examined 10 genes on the X chromosomes of 10 cloned female calves, six of which had died either in the womb or soon after birth. They looked at a process called X-chromosome inactivation. This normally results in one of the two X chromosomes of females being switched off so that the cells of females have the same number of genes switched on as males, who have only one X chromosome. The scientists found that nine out of 10 genes for the dead clones were abnormal in the way they were activated. They also found that this pattern of activation differed from one cloned animal to another, indicating the random nature of the process. There were no such abnormalities in gene activation in the clones that had lived and in female calves resulting from normal sexual reproduction. During normal animal development only the X chromosome inherited from the mother is activated in the placenta, but the study showed that both X chromosomes were active in the placentas of the dead cows. This might explain why the placentas of cloned animals are often bigger than normal and why some cloned foetuses are abnormally large and why some 80 percent of cloned animals died during pregnancy or soon after birth.
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News last month that scientists had built the first programmable computer made from the molecule which carries our genes has brought the vision of computing with DNA one step nearer.
The idea of following Mother Nature's lead and using DNA to store and process information took off in 1994, when Leonard Adle-man of the University of Southern California first used DNA in a test tube to solve a simple mathematical problem.
Since then a dozen research groups around the world have jumped into the field - which fuses biology and information technology - in a bid to harness the inherent ability of strands of DNA to perform trillions of calculations at the same time.
The famous double-helix molecule found in the nucleus of all cells can hold more information in a cubic centimetre than a trillion music CDs, with data stored as a code of
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four chemical bases - adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, or A, T, and G.
These chemical "letters" like to link up with particular other ones, which means strands with complementary letters stick together (A with T, G with C). These linkages can then be "read" using naturally occurring enzymes, giving scientists a way of finding hidden patterns in complex datasets.
But harnessing DNA's potential as a microprocessor remains a challenge and many scientists believe it will only ever complement rather than replace silicon-based computers.
"I think in the future we might have hybrid machines that use a lot of traditional silicon for normal processing tasks but have DNA coprocessors to take over specific tasks for which it is best suited," said Martyn Amos, a lecturer at the University of Liverpool who wrote the first Ph.D. in DNA computing.
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The whole field of DNA computing remains at the very early "proof-of-principle" stage but could start to become a reality in the next five to ten years, Amos believes.
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A computer made of leeches' neurones has been created by a team of US scientists. At present, the device can perform simple sums - the team calls
the novel calculator the "leech-ulator." But their aim is to devise a new generation of fast and flexible computers that can work out for themselves how to solve a problem. The Professor, leading the project, says he is amazed that today's computers are still so dumb. "Unlike ordinary computers needing absolutely correct information every time to come to the right answer, a biological computer will come to the correct answer by filling in the gaps itself," he says. The device the team has built can think for itself because the leech neurones are able to form their own connections from one to another. Normal silicon computers only make the connections they are told to by the programmer. This flexibility means the biological computer works out its own way of solving the problem. "With the neurones, we only have to direct them towards the answer and they get it themselves," says the Professor. This approach to computing is particularly suited to pattern recognition tasks like reading handwriting. The neurones are harnessed in a petri dish by inserting micro-electrodes into them. Each neurone has its own electrical activity and responds in its own way to an electrical stimulus. These features are used to make each neurone represent a number. Calculations are then performed by linking up the individual neurones. Leech neurones are used because they have been extensively studied. Though much simpler, the neurone computer works in a similar way to the human brain. The Professor says a robot brain is his long-term aim, noting that conventional supercomputers are far too big for a robot to carry around. "We want to be able to integrate robotics, electronics and these type of computers so that we can create more sentient robots," he says. Now the team are working on enabling their computer to do multiplication.
11. .
What I think would be real interesting today is if we take a tour of a biological computing facility. Now, you have to use a little imagination on this tour. I'll be the tour guide. I want you all to imagine that you are computer engineers, and my job as a tour guide is to translate for you the biological names that we're viewing so you will understand them as computer engineers. Now you have to imagine yourself as being quite small, like, maybe one micron tall, because biological things are really tiny. So I want to look inside a biological cell and try to identify those computing things which we can relate to our computers today with the name translations. Let's start with an overview. And let's take a human cell, because that's what we're
studying most these days. Specifically, we're going to look at a human cell from the standpoint of how does it compute. For the overview, when we look in the cell, the first thing we see is a big DRAM memory in the nucleus. It's called DNA. Then we look around the cell, and we see there are several thousand microprocessors. They are called mitochondria. And if we look further at how they work, they all share a common memory and they have two levels of cache. Now, you may not believe all this, but wait till we get into the details. Let's look first at the big DRAM memory. Well, it's packaged in 48 bags. These are called chromosomes. Now, as we look at those we are a little puzzled because there are some little ones and some big ones and some middle-sized ones, and how did that happen? Well, when you think about it, this computing facility started with a very small memory, and it's been upgraded a number of times, and you know when you go to the store you'd like to get the biggest DRAM parts, but you have to go with what's available. And that's what happened with the biological system. It had to go with what was available at the time it was upgraded. If we look further into the big DRAM memory, we see that probably the packaging isn't important. Forty-eight banks probably aren't significant. We can view the whole memory as one string of bits, a one-dimensional memory. And biologists, I think, agree with that today. And so how big is it? Well, it's six gigabytes. Now, that's not so bad compared to a personal computer memory today. That's nice compared to even most workstations today. Keeping in mind that it is only one cell, this is a really big DRAM memory.
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1 3. , .
1. Bionics often refers to the replacement of living parts with cybernetic
ones, but more broadly it also means engineering better artificial sys
tems through biological principles.
2. It can sometimes be easier to repair a damaged automobile than the
vehicle's driver because the former may be rebuilt using spare parts, a
luxury that human beings simply have not enjoyed.
3. Regardless of whether we ever see Frankenstein's monster we already
have enough details of the nearest bionic future to let us raise some of
the deeper questions about what it means.
4. In the more ambitious procedure the patient receives cells - either his
or her own or those of a donor - harvested previously and incorporated
into three-dimensional scaffolds of biodegradable polymers, such as
those used to make dissolvable sutures.
5. Virtual reality that becomes far more vivid and compelling by adding
the senses of smell and touch to those of sight and sound.
6. The most entertaining account of cloning was provided by William
Irwin Thompson in his book The American Replacement of Nature.
7. Cloned animals are often bigger than normal.
8. The limitations on cloning were imposed because of the widespread no
tion that even the least dangerous experiment with human genes was
still too dangerous to undertake.
9. Regardless of the benefits of biotechnologies its opponents have ques
tions of the more immediate bionic future causing numerous dangers.
10. Athletic competition could devolve into baroque spectacles that decide
whose genetic enhancements are the best; it would be difficult to argue
that such games would be less interesting than today's contests, which
pretty much decide whose natural genes are best.
11. Since the 1970s the possibilities of cloning tended to inspire relatively
dark cultural movements; historians and philosophers, too, are more
likely now to analyse the negative ramifications of technology or even
to attribute the endeavour to odd or unwholesome urges.
12. Steven Talbott's book The Future Does Not Compute provides the
deepest account of the role of computers in modern life.
14, , . .
1. We, as human beings, are ( ) than merely biological
computers, but this "computational self-image" actually limits our un
derstanding of the world, each other, and (
), our own selves.
2. Computers are becoming ( ) as we impart our
intelligence to them; and on the other, we are becoming () than
fully human as we consider ourselves ( ) as just bio
logical computers.
3. The scientists are sure that the perspectives of cloning should be treated
( ).
4. I don't think that computers are evolving into something that is actually
different to previous human creations by being actually comparable to
us, regardless of the sheer number of networked computers on the Inter
net, or the sheer processing power of ( )
supercomputer.
5. In 1972, Cray founded a company to design and build (
) performance general-purpose supercomputers.
6. The IBM machine was especially designed to do ( ) that
we thought could be done with the computer.
7. A genetic vaccine that endows the user with (
) muscles, without any need to break a sweat at the
gym.
8. Today virtual reality is becoming (
).
9. New biocumputers are likely to become ( ) than
their creators.
10. The first attempt to clone a human being will not come in a very distant future, and independently on the success of this experiment, this will not be () attempt.
11. The protesters are confident that cloning is ( ) of all possi
ble evils that can await mankind in the new century.
12. Religious groups opposed to cloning are sure that even their (
) argument is compelling enough to bar cloning for
ever; they insist that () generations are not to be experi
mented with.
15, , .
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16, .
Cell
: blood cell - , egg cell - , germ cell -, nerve cell - , cell biology - , cell membrane - , cell population - -
, cell line - , , cell clone - , cell-free - , cell-mutant - -
Clone
1. n. I) , ,
: , ; 2) ,
2. v. ; /
Electronics
; ; ; : cryogenic electronics - , -, integrated / microminiature electronics - , molecular electronics - , , nuclear electronics -
Gene
: to transfer / transplant genes - , to cut genes - , to splice genes - , gene bank - , , gene conversion - , gene mapping - , gene pool - , , dominant / recessive gene - / , chorion gene - , chromosomal gene - , epistatic gene - ( ), jumping gene - , maternal / paternal gene - / , mutafacient gene - ( ), rate gene - , , split gene - , structural gene - ( ), truncated gene - , contiguous genes -
Genetic
: genetic engineering - , genetic code - , genetic consultation - - , genetic control - , genetic deficiency - , genetic disease - -
, genetic drift - , genetic hazard - , genetic relatives - (syn: blood relatives)
Implant
1. . 1) ; 2) ; ,
: ceramic / plastic / silicone implant
- / /
2. v. 1) ; ( ): to implant elec
trode - . Syn: graft; 2) , , ;
, , (in). Syn: to imbue, to inculcate, to instil, to
spread, to engraft
Molecule
: chain molecule - , complex molecule - , free / tie molecule - / , giant molecule - , monoatomic / polyatomic molecule - / , planar molecule - , primary molecule - , branched molecule - , linear-chain molecule - , long-chain molecule - -
Nucleus
1) ; . Syn: core, seed, nub, heart, kernel, centre, pith; 2) ; , , : galactic nucleus - , cometary nucleus / nucleus of comet - ; 3) ; : germ nucleus - ; 4)
Transplant
\. . 1) , : 2) (, ); , , : to reject a transplant - , transplant operation - ( ): transplant patient - , . Syn: transplantation
2. v. 1) ; 2) , ( , ). Syn: to
move, to resettle 3) , : to transplant a heart - ; to transplant a kidney -
17. .
Genetic engineering - - silicone implant - - genetic deficiency - - to transplant genes - - cell line - - transplant operation - - - cometary nucleus - , - - - to implant electrode - - - - cell membrane - - epistatic gene - - branched molecule - - blood cell - - linear-chain molecule - - jumping gene - - nuclear electronics - - - tie molecule - - to splice genes - - complex molecule - - integrated electronics - - germ cell - - - gene bank - - - cryogenic electronics - - contiguous genes - .
18, .
| gene | atom |
| cell | core |
| implant | android |
| molecule | vacuole |
| nucleus | chromosome |
| clone | transplant |
19, .
1. What scientific achievements are expected in the twenty first century?
2. Why is it said that virtual reality becomes more vivid?
3. What are the prospects of cloning that will occur in the nearest future?
4. What genetic imbalances have been discovered by American scientists?
5. What is a biological computer?
6. From what points of view can a cell be studied?
20, . .
* The merging of biology and microelectronics is at the heart of most of the coming advances.
{Glenn Zorpette and Carol Ezzell)
* Human body may be more than a sum of parts, but replacing failing parts should extend and improve life.
(David Mooney)
* Plans to clone human embryos to generate vital stem cells for transplant operations are likely to fail using the techniques currently available.
{Steve Connor)
* Cloning for transplant may produce fatal genetic imbalances.
(Steve Connor)
* A zygote is a gamete's way of producing more gametes. This may be the purpose of the universe.
(Robert Heinleiri)
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undergraduate / undergraduate student / college student - .. / B.S.
freshman - sophomore - junior - senior -
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Ph.D. , . , , , Second Ph.D. ( , , ) - Diploma, Kandidat Nauk, Doktor Nauk - , , . , , , .
, : "A Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree a person can obtain in the US. After obtaining a Ph.D. degree a person is entitled to be called "Doctor" and to add the title "Dr." before his name. Note that in the Eastern European countries such as Russia or Hungary, one can obtain academic degrees that technically are at a higher academic level than the US Ph.D. degree. However, in English translation they are translated into "Ph.D." This may cause some confusion".
, :
... (Master of Business Administration) -
M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) -
Pharm. D. (Pharmacy Doctor) - Juris Doctor -
- , :
| Full Professor | Professor | |
| Associate Professor | Reader. | |
| Assistant Professor | Senior Lecturer | |
| Lecturer | Lecturer |
> -
:
University of Cambridge - University of Oxford - University of Liverpool - University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute -
Harvard University -
Yale University -
University of Pennsylvania-
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill -
University of California at Berkeley -
University of Southern California -
Massachusetts Institute of Technology -
> Mary Shelley - (1797- 1851),
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(Percy Bysshe Shelley); ,
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1822 . , , (The Last Man), XXI . . , , .
>
:
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) - ( )
DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) - ,
RNA (RiboNucleic Acid) - ,
> :
- Parkinson's disease, shakin / trembling palsy
- Alzheimer's disease / sclerosis, primary neuronal degeneration
- petri dish
