Из-за широкого спектра применения, пластмасса представляется одним из главных компонентов твердых отходов. Пластмассу получают из нефтяных источников, и она не подвержена биохимическому разложению. Сталкиваясь с нехваткой мест для закапывания отходов и с обществом с экологическим сознанием, переработчики имеют возможность принять новые технологии для сокращения отходов и увеличения усилий по переработке. Преимущества, обеспечиваемые улучшенной деятельностью по переработке, таковы: сокращение отходов, уменьшение стоимости конечного продукта, сокращение потребления энергии, охрана окружающей среды и экономия нефти.
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Vocabulary / Словарь:
1. due to – благодаря, вследствие, в результате, из-за
2. a diverse array – широкий спектр
3. solid waste – твердые отходы
4. petroleum – нефть
5. non-biodegradable – не подвергаемый биохимическому разложению
6. landfill space shortage – нехватка места для закапывания отходов, мусора
7. environmentally – по отношению к окружающей среде
8. to adopt – принимать
9. recycling – переработка отходов, утилизация
10. reduction – снижение, понижение, сокращение, уменьшение, спад
11. cost decrease – снижение затрат
12. energy consumption – потребление затрат
13. waste/scraps – отходы
14. features – особенность, характерная черта; деталь, признак, свойство
15. commonly – обычно, обыкновенно, как правило, в большинстве случаев
16. through – через, сквозь, по, внутри
17. extrusion – экструзия, выдавливание, прессование
18. pellet – гранула, зерно
19. foil – фольга
20. venting – дренаж
21. heating – нагрев
22. screws – винт, шуруп
23. complicate – усложнять, затруднять
24. durable – длительный, долговременный, долговечный
25. relevant – подходящий, уместный, имеющий отношение к делу
Образец № 3
What happens when automation systems fail?
Kevin Ackerman,
11/16/2012
Что происходит, когда системы автоматизации отказывают?
Кэвин Акерман,
11/16/2012
Abstract
The article deals with the problem of automation systems failure. The example vision-guided robotic (VGR) bin is being considered. It is pointed out that there are significant challenges in implementing this system successfully. Much attention is given to the process VGR operating. In conclusion, it is said that the process stops and requires significant intervention and downtime.
What happens when automation systems fail?
What happens when it fails? This simple question is often overlooked when automation systems are designed and implemented. Asking this question can provide another d imension to a solution, often creating extra work for a system integrator in the short term, but definitely has long-term benefits. What really matters is how often it fails, and what happens when it does. A few examples follow of actual vision systems where considering this question was critically important.
Vision-guided robotic (VGR) bin picking is a unique challenge. The intention is that product in bins is removed by robots and loaded into machines, onto conveyors, etc. As easy as this might sound, there are significant challenges in implementing it successfully, mainly based on the structure of the bin and parts inside. VGR itself is a whole other topic (vision – 2D vs. 3D, bins – structured, layered, jumbled, and such), but no matter the technology, part presentation, and other factures, the success/ failure rate «per pick» is a serious consideration.
This is best explained by example. Consider a bin that contains 100 parts. This is the «standard» bin, and whenever a bin is presented to a robot, it starts with 100 parts. Then consider the success rate on an individual part – this is the product of the vision success rate (How likely can parts be identified and located?) and the robot grip success rate (Once a part is located by vision, how likely is it that the part can be physically gripped?). In the example, if the vision success rate is 99.5% and grip success rate is 99.5%, then the per part success rate approximates 99% (99.5% x 99.5%).
That means for each part in the bin, the robot is 99% likely to pick it successfully. Sounds good, but consider that 99% over the 100 parts (an entire bin) – the «bin success rate». Basic statistics tells us that the bin success rate is (0.99)100 = 0.366 or 36%. Suddenly 99% isn’t so good. This means that for a typical bin, there is only a 36% chance it will be emptied without issue or, in other words, a 64% chance there will be a failure at some point in that bin.
So what happens when it fails? This is an important question in this example, because it appears that in 64% of bins there will be an issue. Is it a big deal? This is application specific – perhaps the process is fine, and it will result in a couple «leftover» parts in the bin. The other extreme is that the process stops and requires significant intervention and downtime.
Что происходит, когда системы автоматизации отказывают?
Что происходит, когда система отказывает? Этот простой вопрос часто игнорируется, когда системы автоматизации разрабатываются и внедряются. Постановка этого вопроса способствует другому аспекту решения проблемы, часто создавая дополнительную работу для системного интегратора на непродолжительное время, но определенно обладает долгосрочными преимуществами. То, что действительно имеет значение, – то, как часто система отказывает, и что происходит, когда это случается. Приводятся несколько примеров фактических систем видения, в которых рассмотрение этого вопроса было крайне важным.
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Vocabulary / Словарь:
1. to design (designed) – проектировать, разрабатывать, конструировать
2. to implement (implemented) – осуществлять, внедрять, вводить в эксплуатацию
3. dimension – размах, величина, степень, мера, сторона, аспект
4. unique – уникальный, исключительный, редкий
5. intention – намерение, стремление, цель; замысел
6. to remove (removed) – передвигать, перемещать
7. significant – значительный, важный, существенный
8. bin – приемник, контейнер
9. no matter – неважно
10. facture – фактура
11. failure – авария, повреждение, отказ
12. individual part – отдельные части, детали
13. to grip – захватывать, зажимать
14. success rate – доля успешных попыток
15. to approximate – приближаться, почти соответствовать, приблизительно равняться
16. likely – вероятно, возможно
17. entire – весь, целый
18. to empty (emptied) – опустошать, очищать
19. issue – выпуск, выход
20. to appear – оказываться
21. leftover – остатки
22. extreme – крайность
23. intervention – вмешательство
24. downtime – непроизводительная потеря времени, простой
25. definitely – определенно
Образец № 4
Geneva Motor Show
Automotive engineering international, 2000
Женевский автосалон
Международный журнал автомобилестроения, 2000
Abstract
The article reports on a new Morgan Aero 8 sports car shown at the annual Motor Show held in Geneva, 2000. Much attention is given to description of the materials and the appearance of the car. It is clamed that special design provides excellent torsional rigidity. It is said that the Aero 8 uses a 4.4-L BMW engine producing 210 kW (281 hp) at 5500 rpm and has a six-speed gearbox with self-adjusting clutch. The article is of particular interest because of innovative solutions shown in this sports car model.
Geneva Motor Show
The annual Geneva Motor Show is one of the automotive delights of the year. It unfailingly presents a heady mix of aesthetic and technological exotica that no other international motor show can match, and this year was no exception. The span of newly unveiled production models, big-name concepts, and small-name one-offs was quite extraordinary.
The biggest surprise at Geneva this year (2000) was the new Morgan Aero 8. Morgan is a very small but long established (1909) British specialist producer building sports cars that look as if they were styled decades ago – which, more or less, they were. Morgan buyers are invariably aficionados prepared to order a car from the company and wait several years for delivery. Although Morgan has developed its cars to meet international safety and emissions legislation, new models in the fullest sense have not been on the agenda – until now.
The Aero 8 retains much of the Morgan style signature, with flowing fenders and broad running boards; in this respect it is as retro as retro can be. However, in some senses the remarkably individualistic Aero 8 is thoroughly Y2K. Described as a «completely new» model, it has an aluminum chassis and a combination of thermo-plastically and hand-formed aluminum body panels. Morgan describes it as an AIV (aluminum-intensive vehicle).
Engineers developed the car over a four-year period, focusing on weight saving, performance, ride, and handling – with lightweight components and materials central to the car’s design. The Aero 8 uses «the latest aluminum material» which has been specially designed for use in vehicle manufacture. Sections of the aluminum are bonded using a high performance adhesive and riveted for secondary strength. This combination provides excellent torsional rigidity, claims the company.
The Aero 8 uses a 4.4-L BMW engine producing 210 kW (281 hp) at 5500 rpm. A six-speed gearbox with self-adjusting clutch is fitted. The engine’s cradle is made from aluminum extrusions. Use of aluminum extrusions for suspension and braking systems contributes to keeping the car’s mass to about 1000 kg. Suspension is all-independent.
At the front, each side gets a long cantilever upper arm with lower wishbone and inboard Eibach coil springs over a Koni shock absorber. The Aero 8 has an H-frame. Designed in in-house using CATIA software, the car has a Cd of 0.39, a figure which shows little variance with the folding roof erect or lowered.
The shape, which develops negative lift front and rear, was developed in the wind tunnel.
Женевский автосалон
Ежегодный Женевский Автосалон – одно из восхитительных авто-событий года. Он неизменно представляет головокружительную смесь эстетической и технологической экзотики, которой не может соответствовать никакой другой международный автосалон, и этот год не был исключением. Размах недавно представленных моделей, знаменитых концептов и малоизвестных единичных моделей, был исключителен.
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Vocabulary / Словарь:
1. annual – ежегодный
2. automotive – автомобильный
3. exception – исключение, отклонение от нормы, несоответствие правилам
4. invariably – неизменно, постоянно, без исключений
5. delivery – поставка, доставка
6. safety and emissions legislation – законодательство относительно безопасности и выбросов
7. to retain – держать, удерживать, аккумулировать, вмещать
8. fender – решетка, щит
9. in this respect – в этом отношении
10. body – кузов, корпус
11. vehicle – транспортное средство
12. lightweight – вес облегченный, легкий
13. to bond – связывать, соединять, скреплять
14. adhesive – адгезионный, клеящий, связывающий
15. to rivet – заклёпывать, клепать, скреплять заклёпками
16. strength – сила, прочность, сопротивление
17. torsional rigidity – жёсткость при кручении
18. gearbox – коробка передач, коробка скоростей
19. clutch – сцепление
20. cradle – опора, рама
21. suspension – подвеска
22. cantilever – консоль, кронштейн
23. shock absorber – амортизатор
24. folding roof – складная крыша
25. wind tunnel – аэродинамическая труба
Образец № 5
Economic growth
Stuart Cochrane,
Guide to Economics, Macmillan Publishers Limited 2013, p. 88-89
Экономический рост
Стюарт Кошрейн,
Введение в экономику, издательство «Макмиллан» 2013, стр. 88-89
Abstract
The article is devoted to economic growth. It is claimed that economic growth does not happen everywhere. It is shown why an increase in GNP may not show economic growth. Attention is also concentrated on steady growth. The article touches upon three factors which positively influence economic growth.
Special emphasis is laid on things that are necessary for economic growth. In conclusion the author reports on importance of technology.
Economic growth
Many millions of people enjoy a quality of life today that previous generations could not have dreamed of. Home ownership, private cars and holidays are now standard for most families in industrialised countries. And yet at the same time, billions of people in other countries live without even clean drinking water. How can this be? The answer is that the fortunate few live in countries with sustained economic growth.
An economy is growing when the gross national product is increasing year after year. When economists calculate economic growth, though, they must take into account the effects of inflation. For example, imagine that the gross national product of a country increased from $500 billion to $510 billion from one year to another. That’s an increase of two per cent in output. Very impressive! However, if the rate of inflation was two per cent, then there has been no real growth at all.
The other thing to remember about economic growth is that not all growth is good. Governments want steady, sustainable growth. Sudden, sharp increases in growth – a boom – can cause the economy to overheat and fall into recession. For many economies, the long run growth over many years is steady, but the short run is a roller-coaster ride of boom and depression. For instance, the long run growth of the UK economy since 1950 has been 2, 5 % per year. However, if you look closely at any decade you’ll see that there is a cycle of growth, recession and recovery. The truth is, steady growth in the short term, is very hard to achieve.
Nevertheless, many countries are still struggling to achieve any kind of growth at all. Why is this? What is necessary for growth to happen? Many economists have tried to find the answer to this question, and there are plenty of theories to choose from. However, most economists agree that three things are essential for economic growth to occur: capital growth, savings and technological progress.
Capital refers to the factors and machinery that the labour force uses to turn raw materials will only lead to a certain amount of growth. Eventually, the economy needs more capital for the labour to use. Capital growth can also include training and education for the labour force. This makes the workforce more efficient, creative and productive.
Of course, someone has to pay for the new machines and training. In other words, capital growth needs to be borrowed from banks. Banks can only lend if the customers make savings. This is why savings are so important for growth. However, the economy will not grow if everyone is saving and no one is spending. Getting the right balance between consumption and savings is another part of the challenge of economic growth.
But above all, technology is the real miracle worker of economic growth. An advance in technology can increase productivity from the same amount of capital and resources: just what the chancellor ordered!
Экономический рост
Сегоднямногие миллионы людей наслаждаются качеством жизни, о котором предыдущие поколения не могли и мечтать. Домовладение, частные автомобили и праздники являются стандартными для большинства семей в промышленно развитых странах. И все же в то же самое время, миллиарды людей в других странах живут, даже без чистой питьевой воды. Как это может быть? Ответ в том, что немного счастливчиков живет в странах с устойчивым экономическим ростом.
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Vocabulary / Словарь:
1. ownership – собственность, право собствеености
2. the gross national product – валовой национальный продукт
3. to take into account – принимать во внимание, в расчет
4. to increase – увеличивать(ся), расти, возрастать
5. output – объем выпуска, выпуск (продукции)
6. the rate of inflation – темп инфляции
7. steady growth – устойчивый рост
8. a boom – бум, быстрый подъем (деловой активности)
9. to overheat – перегревать(ся)
10. a roller-coaster ride of doom and depression – головокружительная череда подъемов и спадов
11. depression – депрессия, застой, кризис; уменьшение, понижение
12. recession – рецессия, сильный спад, кризис
13. recovery – оживление, подъем, восстановление
14. to achieve – достигать, добиваться
15. capital – капитал, фонды
16. labour force – рабочая сила
17. raw materials – сырьевые материалы
18. workforce – рабочая сила
19. efficient – эффективный; квалифицированный
20. to lend money – ссужать деньги, давать в долг
21. customer – покупатель, клиент
22. savings – сбережения
23. consumption – потребление
24. productivity – производительность (труда), продуктивность
25. amount of capital – размер капитала
ОБРАЗЦЫ
