: 38-57,58, 60, 61, 63, 65,66 14,17 |
: 42-50,55,58,59 |
: 19 - 25 |
* ( ) |
, >1 |
() |
() |
c ↓ V ( ), ↑ , .. , . |
V |
Q = A + ∆U |
: = - ′ |
Q + A′ = ∆U |
I |
Q = ∆U |
V = const |
A = 0 |
r U |
T ↑ |
A = - ∆U |
0 = A +∆U |
Q = 0 |
- |
, - |
, |
T ↓ |
∆ U = 0 |
Q = A |
T =const |
= const |
T ↑ |
U |
Q = p∆V+∆U |
p = const |
A = p∆V |
i , : |
. |
, . , 5 |
5 |
- - . |
, , , 6 |
6 |
. |
3 |
, 3 () |
** , - - |
- , |
|
: 6 - 10 |
: 6-8, 14,17 |
: 7, 8,11-14,20 |
: 88-97 |
: 85-97 |
Q = ∆ = ∆U +∆ |
I ( - ) |
= U+ = const ∆ = 0 |
, : |
Q = ∆U + A |
- I |
Q = ∆U1 + ∆U1 + + ∆UN |
Q, , : : = , () 1 () 1=1; λ = , () 1 () ( ); L = , () () 1 |
+ |
+ |
t oC |
t |
t |
Q |
, , , |
∆U1 + ∆U1 + + ∆UN = 0 (1) |
, , (Q = 0) , : . , . , = 0; , i ∆Ui = Qi, (1) : |
: |
Q1 + Q2 + + QN = 0 |
: Qi =∆Ui > 0, to↑ - Q Qi =∆Ui < 0, to↓ - Q |
Q1 + Q2 + + QK = | QK+1 | + | QK+2 | + + | QN | |
, |
, |
: 13-15 |
= (V) |
: 21-36 |
: 21-41 |
: 16-18 10 |
, , , (, ) |
S |
, = const, .. |
, ≠ const: |
d = dV |
: = d 1+ d 2 + = 1 dV 1 + 2 dV 2 + |
, , |
V |
V 1 |
V 2 |
= const |
: F - , (); F′ - , () III : |
: 1-5, 9-13, 15,16,18-20 |
: 1-6, 9,10, 15-19 |
: 1 - 5 |
.. = 0 : |
: |
|
, U () |
, < 0 |
: |
, , |
R |
: 3 |
U |
t 1 > t 2 |
U 2 |
U 1 |
U 1 |
U 2 |
Q |
∆U 1 = - ∆U 2 = Q |
υ |
∆ U = - ∆ = |
U |
U |
U |
U |
Q = ∆ U |
A = ∆U |
: 11, 12 |
: 57,59,64 |
: 51-54,56,57 |
: 26 - 34 |
T = const ∆ U =0 |
, |
: |
- ( ) |
() |
cV < M |
. |
V = const A =0 |
- ↑ (↑ U) |
- ↑ , |
p =const |
A= |
. |
, 1 |
, 1 1 |
, 1 1 |
. |
|
|
|
|
: 62 |
: 35, 36 |
** , - - |
. |
3 |
. |
. , 5 |
5 |
- - . |
, , 6 |
6 |
i , : |
|
|
, : U T E |
, |
. |
, () |
, |
Q < 0 |
d |
c |
b |
V 2 |
V 1 |
V |
( ) |
| 2| 2 |
, V 1 abcV 2 = 1 |
, V 1 adcV 2 = ′2 |
1 1 |
, . |
, : |
∆ U 1 +∆ U 2 = 0, .. |
: 1 ′2 = (Q -∆ U 1) (∆ U 2- Q )= Q + Q = Q -| Q | |
Q > 0 |
: 67-85 |
: 60-63,65 |
: 40 - 48 |
, ( ) , η = 100% , ! |
I |
η > 100% |
I |
η = 100% |
II |
II - |
, , , .. : |
1 > 2 |
(.. , ) - .. |
1 |
2 |
- |
U 1 U 2 |
- |
U 2 U 1 |
, |
1 |
2 |
1 > 2 |
, |
: 49 - 54 |
η η <40% |
() |
1 2 4 - 3 |
2 3 4 - 1 |
V |
4 |
2 |
1 |
3 |
: |
, |
Q |
, |
= Q | Q | |
Q |
, , |
= |
|
|
** |
, , - |
() |
Q |
Q |
= - |
V |
Q < 0 |
Q > 0 |
T↑ |
T↓ |
= - > 0 |
Q =? |
c : |
< 0 |
: |
> 0 |
Q = Q (η - 1) |
: 86 |
: 64 |
: 55 - 58 |