... . . . . . . .
VI VII .
. . . . . . .
. . .
. . .
1. .. . .: , 1998.
2. .. ..:, 1988.
3. .. . .: , 1986.
4. .. . .: , 1998.
1. .. . .: , 1983.
2. .. . .: 1985.
3. . .2, / . .. . .: , 1975.
4. .. . .: , 1997.
5. .., .., .. . .: . 1990.
6. .. . . .: . 1998.
, | ||
I II | 1, 21, 41, 61, 81, 101, 121, 141, 161, 181, 201, 221, 241, 261, 281, 301, 321, 341, 361, 391, | |
I II | 2, 22, 42, 62, 82, 102, 122, 142, 162, 182, 202 222, 243, 262, 282, 302, 322, 342, 362, 392, | |
I II | 3, 23, 43, 63, 83, 103, 123, 143, 163, 183, 203 223, 243, 263, 283, 303, 323, 343, 363, 393, | |
I II | 4, 24, 44, 64, 84, 104, 124, 144, 164, 184, 204 224, 244, 264, 284, 304, 324, 344, 364, 394, | |
I II | 5, 25, 45, 65, 85, 105, 125, 145, 165, 185, 205 225, 245, 265, 285, 305, 325, 345, 365, 395, | |
I II | 6, 26, 46, 66, 86, 106, 126, 145, 166, 186, 206 226, 246, 266, 286, 306, 326, 346, 366, 396, | |
I II | 7, 27, 47, 67, 87, 107, 127, 147, 167, 187, 207 227, 247, 267, 287, 307, 327, 347, 367, 397, | |
I II | 8, 28, 48, 68, 88, 108, 128, 148, 168, 188, 208 228, 248, 268, 288, 308, 328, 348, 368, 398, | |
I II | 9, 29, 49, 69, 89, 109, 129, 149, 169, 189, 209 229, 249, 269, 289, 309, 329, 349, 369, 399, | |
I II | 10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, 210 230, 250, 270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 400, | |
I II | 11, 31, 51, 71, 91, 111, 131, 151, 171, 191, 211 231, 251, 271, 291, 311, 331, 351, 371, 391, | |
I II | 12, 32, 52, 72, 92, 112, 132, 152, 172, 192, 212 232, 252, 272, 292, 312, 332, 352, 372, 392, | |
I II | 13, 33, 53, 73, 93, 113, 133, 153, 173, 193, 213 233, 253, 273, 293, 313, 333, 353, 373, 393, | |
I II | 14, 34, 54, 74, 94, 114, 134, 154, 174, 194, 214 234, 254, 274, 294, 314, 334, 354, 374, 394, | |
I II | 15, 35, 55, 75, 95, 115, 135, 155, 175, 195, 215 235, 255, 275, 295, 315, 335, 355, 375, 395, | |
I II | 16, 36, 56, 76, 96, 116, 136, 156, 176, 196, 216 236, 256, 276, 296, 316, 336, 356, 376, 396, | |
I II | 17, 37, 57, 77, 97, 117, 137, 157, 177, 197, 217 237, 257, 277, 297, 317, 337, 357, 377, 397, | |
I II | 18, 38, 58, 78, 98, 118, 138, 158, 178, 198, 218 238, 258, 278, 298, 318, 338, 358, 378, 398, | |
I II | 19, 39, 59, 79, 99, 119, 139, 159, 179, 199, 219 239, 259, 279, 299, 319, 339, 359, 379, 399, | |
I II | 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400, | |
I II | 1, 22, 43, 64, 85, 106, 127, 148, 169, 190, 211 222, 243, 264, 285, 306, 327, 348, 381, 391, | |
I II | 2, 23, 44, 65, 86, 107, 128, 149, 170, 191, 212 223, 244, 265, 286, 307, 328, 349, 382, 392, | |
I II | 3, 24, 45, 66, 87, 108, 129, 150, 171, 192, 213 224, 245, 266, 287, 308, 329, 350, 383, 393, | |
I II | 4, 25, 46, 67, 88, 109, 130, 151, 172, 193, 214 225, 246, 267, 288, 309, 330, 351, 384, 394, | |
I II | 5, 36, 47, 68, 89, 110, 131, 152, 173, 194, 215 226, 247, 268, 289, 310, 331, 352, 385, 395, | |
I II | 6, 27, 48, 69, 90, 111, 132, 153, 174, 195, 216 227, 248, 269, 290, 311, 332, 353, 386, 396, | |
I II | 7, 28, 49, 70, 91, 112, 133, 154, 175, 196, 217 228, 249, 270, 291, 312, 333, 354, 387, 397, | |
I II | 8, 29, 50, 71, 92, 113, 134, 155, 176, 197, 218 229, 250, 271, 292, 313, 334, 355, 388, 398, | |
I II | 9, 30, 51, 72, 93, 114, 135, 156, 177, 198, 219 230, 251, 272, 293, 314, 335, 356, 389, 399, | |
i ii | 10, 31, 52, 73, 94, 115, 136, 157, 178, 199, 220, 231, 252, 273, 294, 315, 336, 357, 390, 400, | |
i ii | 11, 32, 53, 74, 95, 116, 137, 158, 179, 200, 201 232, 253, 274, 295, 316, 337, 358, 361, 391, | |
i ii | 12, 33, 54, 75, 96, 117, 138, 159, 180, 181, 202 233, 254, 275, 296, 317, 338, 359, 362, 392, | |
i ii | 13, 34, 55, 76, 97, 118, 139, 160, 161, 182, 203 234, 255, 276, 297, 318, 339, 360, 363, 393, | |
i ii | 14, 35, 56, 77, 98, 119, 140, 141, 162, 183, 204 235, 256, 277, 298, 319, 340, 347, 364, 394, | |
i ii | 15, 36, 57, 78, 99, 120, 121, 142, 163, 184, 205 236, 257, 278, 299, 320, 322, 346, 365, 395, | |
i ii | 16, 37, 58, 79, 100, 101, 122, 143, 164, 185, 206 237, 258, 279, 300, 301, 323, 345, 366, 396, | |
i ii | 17, 38, 59, 80, 81, 102, 123, 144, 165, 186, 207 238, 259, 280, 281, 302, 324, 344, 367, 397, | |
i ii | 18, 39, 60, 65, 86, 107, 128, 145, 166, 187, 208 239, 260, 261, 282, 303, 325, 343, 368, 398, | |
i ii | 19, 40, 44, 66, 87, 108, 129, 146, 167, 188, 209 240, 241, 262, 283, 304, 326, 342, 369, 399, | |
i Ii | 20, 23, 45, 67, 88, 109, 130, 147, 168, 189, 210 221, 242, 263, 284, 305, 327, 341, 370, 400, | |
i Ii | 2, 24, 46, 68, 89, 110, 131, 148, 170, 190, 201 223, 241, 265, 281, 306, 328, 341, 371, 391, | |
i ii | 3, 25, 47, 69, 90, 111, 132, 149, 171, 191, 202 224, 242, 266, 282 307, 329, 342, 372, 392, | |
i ii | 4, 26, 48, 70, 91, 112, 133, 150, 172, 192, 203 225, 243, 267, 288 308, 330, 343, 373, 393, | |
i ii | 5, 27, 49, 71, 92, 113, 134, 151, 173, 193, 204 226, 244, 268, 284, 309, 331, 344, 374, 394, | |
i ii | 6, 28, 50, 72, 93, 114, 135, 152, 174, 194, 205 227, 245, 269, 285, 310, 332, 345, 375, 395, | |
i Ii | 7, 29, 51, 73, 94, 115, 136, 153, 175, 195, 206 228, 246, 270, 286, 311, 333, 346, 376, 396, | |
i ii | 8, 30, 52, 74, 95, 116, 137, 154, 176, 196, 207 229, 247, 271, 287, 312, 334, 347, 377, 397, | |
i ii | 9, 31, 53, 75, 96, 117, 138, 155, 177, 197, 208 230, 248, 272, 288, 313, 335, 348, 378, 398, | |
i ii | 10, 32, 54, 76, 97, 118, 139, 156, 178, 198, 209 231, 249, 273, 289, 314, 336, 349, 379, 399, | |
i ii | 11, 33, 55, 77, 98, 119, 140, 157, 179, 199, 210 232, 250, 274, 290, 315, 137, 350, 380, 400, | |
i ii | 12, 34, 56, 78, 99, 120, 122, 158, 180, 200, 211 233, 251, 275, 291, 316, 321, 341, 361, 381, | |
i ii | 13, 35, 57, 79, 100, 103, 121, 159, 169, 182, 212 234, 252, 276, 292, 317, 325, 342, 362, 382, | |
i ii | 14, 36, 58, 80, 85, 104, 123, 160, 161, 183, 213 235, 253, 277, 293, 318, 324, 343, 363, 383, | |
i ii | 15, 37, 59, 61, 84, 105, 124, 141, 162, 184, 214 236, 254, 278, 294, 319, 323, 344, 364, 384, | |
i ii | 16, 38, 60, 62, 83, 106, 125, 143, 163, 185, 215 237, 255, 279, 295, 320, 322, 345, 365, 385, | |
i ii | 17, 39, 41, 63, 82, 101, 126, 142, 164, 186, 216 238, 256, 280, 296, 301, 321, 346, 366, 386, | |
i ii | 18, 40, 42, 61, 81, 102, 127, 144, 165, 187, 217 239, 257, 271, 297, 302, 326, 347, 367, 387, | |
i i | 19, 21, 43, 62, 87, 103, 128, 145, 166, 188, 218 240, 258, 272, 298, 303, 327, 348, 368, 388, | |
i ii | 20, 22, 44, 63, 88, 104, 129, 146, 167, 189, 219 223, 259, 273, 299, 304, 328, 349, 369, 389, | |
i II | 1, 24, 42, 64, 89, 105, 130, 147, 168, 190, 220 222, 260, 274, 300, 305, 329, 350, 370, 390, | |
i ii | 3, 25, 43, 65, 90, 106, 131, 148, 169, 191, 201 221, 250, 275, 281, 301, 330, 341, 361, 392, | |
i II | 4, 26, 44, 66, 91, 107, 132, 149, 170, 192, 202 222, 251, 276, 282, 302, 331, 342, 362, 393, | |
i ii | 5, 27, 45, 67, 92, 108, 133, 150, 171, 193, 203 224, 252, 277, 283, 303, 332, 343, 363, 394, | |
i ii | 6, 28, 46, 68, 93, 109, 134, 151, 172, 194, 204 223, 253, 278, 284, 304, 333, 344, 364, 395, | |
i ii | 7, 29, 47, 69, 94, 110, 135, 152, 173, 195, 205 225, 254, 279, 285, 305, 334, 345, 365, 396, | |
I ii | 8, 30, 48, 70, 195, 111, 136, 153, 174, 196, 206 226, 255, 280, 286, 306, 335, 346, 366, 397, | |
i ii | 9, 31, 49, 71, 96, 112, 137, 154, 175, 197, 207 227, 256, 261, 287, 307, 336, 347, 367, 398, | |
i ii | 10, 32, 50, 72, 97, 113, 138, 155, 176, 198, 208 228, 257, 262, 288, 308, 337, 348, 368, 399, | |
i ii | 11, 33, 51, 73, 98, 114, 139, 156, 177, 199, 209 229, 258, 263, 289, 309, 338, 349, 369, 400, | |
i ii | 12, 34, 52, 74, 99, 115, 140, 157, 178, 200, 210 230, 259, 264, 290, 310, 339, 350, 370, 391, | |
i ii | 13, 35, 53, 75, 100, 116, 121, 158, 179, 181, 211 231, 260, 265, 291, 311, 340, 351, 371, 392, | |
i ii | 14, 36, 54, 76, 86, 117, 122, 159, 180, 182, 212 232, 241, 266, 292, 312, 321, 352, 372, 390, | |
i ii. | 15, 37, 55, 77, 85, 118, 123, 160, 162, 183, 213 233, 242, 267, 293, 313, 322, 353, 373, 392, | |
i ii | 16, 38, 56, 78, 84, 119, 124, 142, 161, 184, 214 234, 243, 268, 294, 314, 323, 354, 374, 393, | |
i ii | 17, 39, 57, 79, 83, 120, 125, 141, 163, 185, 215 235, 244, 269, 295, 315, 324, 355, 375, 396, | |
i ii | 18, 40, 58, 80, 82, 101, 126, 143, 164, 186, 216 236, 245, 270, 296, 316, 325, 156, 376, 397, | |
i ii | 19, 23, 59, 61, 81, 102, 127, 144, 165, 187, 217 237, 246, 271, 297, 317, 326, 357, 377, 398, | |
i Ii | 20, 21, 60, 62, 100, 103, 128, 145, 166, 188, 218 238, 247, 272, 298, 318, 327, 358, 378, 399, | |
i ii | 4, 22, 51, 63, 99, 104, 129, 146, 167, 189, 219 239, 248, 273, 300, 319, 328, 359, 379, 400, | |
i ii | 5, 23, 52, 64, 98, 105, 130, 147, 168, 190, 220 240, 249, 274, 281, 320, 329, 360, 380, 391, | |
i ii | 6, 24, 53, 65, 97, 106, 131, 148, 169, 191, 211 231, 250, 275, 282, 301, 330, 351, 381, 392, | |
i ii | 7, 25, 54, 66, 96, 107, 132, 149, 170, 192, 212 232, 251, 276, 283, 302, 334, 352, 382, 393, | |
i ii | 8, 26, 55, 67, 95, 108, 133, 150, 171, 193, 213 233, 252, 277, 284, 303, 335, 353, 383, 394, | |
i ii | 9, 27, 56, 68, 94, 109, 134, 151, 172, 194, 214 234, 253, 278, 285, 304, 336, 354, 384, 395, | |
i ii | 10, 28, 57, 69, 93, 110, 135, 152, 173, 195, 215 235, 254, 279, 286, 305, 337, 355, 385, 396, | |
I ii | 11, 29, 58, 70, 92, 111, 136, 153, 174, 196, 216 236, 255, 280, 287, 306, 338, 356, 386, 397, | |
i ii | 12, 30, 59, 71, 91, 112, 137, 154, 175, 197, 217 237, 256, 264, 288, 307, 339, 357, 387, 398, | |
i ii | 13, 31, 60, 72, 90, 113, 138, 155, 176, 198, 218 238, 257, 265, 289, 308, 340, 358, 388, 399, | |
i ii | 14, 32, 41, 73, 69, 114, 139, 156, 177, 199, 219 239, 258, 266, 290, 309, 331, 359, 389, 400, | |
i ii | 15, 33, 42, 74, 88, 115, 140, 157, 178, 200, 220, 240, 259, 267, 291, 310, 332, 350, 370, 391, | |
i ii | 16, 34, 43, 75, 87, 116, 131, 158, 179, 181, 201, 221, 260, 268, 292, 311, 333, 341, 365, 392, | |
i ii | 17, 35, 44, 76, 86, 117, 132, 159, 180, 182, 202 222, 241, 269, 293, 312, 321, 342, 367, 393, | |
i ii | 18, 36, 45, 77, 85, 118, 133, 160, 161, 183, 203 223, 242, 270, 294, 313, 322, 343, 369, 394, | |
i ii | 19, 37, 46, 78, 84, 119, 134, 141, 162, 184, 204 224, 243, 261, 295, 314, 323, 344, 371, 395, | |
i ii | 20, 38, 47, 79, 83, 120, 135, 142, 163, 185, 205 225, 244, 562, 296, 315, 324, 345, 375, 396, | |
i ii | 1, 39, 48, 80, 82, 110, 136, 143, 164, 186, 206 226, 245, 463, 297, 316, 325, 346, 377, 397, | |
i ii | 2, 40, 49, 61, 81, 111, 137, 144, 165, 187, 207 227, 246, 471, 298, 317, 326, 347, 380, 398, | |
i ii | 3, 24, 50, 62, 100, 112, 138, 145, 166, 188, 208 228, 247, 972, 299, 318, 327, 348, 383, 399, | |
i ii | 4, 25, 51, 63, 99, 113, 139, 146, 167, 189, 209 229, 248, 273, 300, 319, 328, 349, 364, 381, | |
i ii | 5, 26, 52, 64, 98, 114, 140, 147, 168, 190, 210 230, 249, 274, 281, 320, 329, 350, 365, 392, |
|
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, (). , 98594, 94, 94.
1
1. 9 28. ?
2. . ?
|
|
3. s -, p -, d - f - ? ?
4. . ?
5. : 4 s 3 d; 5 s 4 p? ? 21.
6. 17 29. 4 s - 3 d - . ?
7. : 4 d 5 s; 6 s 5 p? ? 43.
8. 21 23. 3 d ?
9. : n = 4; l = 0; m l = 0; m s = ½. , 3 d ?
10. 17 29. ?
11. , : ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 53 s 1; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 6; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 63 d 4; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 64 s 2 ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 d 2? ?
12. 9 28. ?
13. 45 53. ?
14. m i l = 0; 1; 2 3? s -, p -, d - f - ? .
15. n, l, ml m s, ? ?
16. d - s - p - ? 46, , , , .
17. 24 33, , , 4 s - 3 d - . ?
18. s -, p -, d - f - ? s -, p - d - ?
19. ? - p 7- d 12- ? ? 22 .
20. 32 42, , , 5 s - 4 d - . ?
. .
21. , : - , , . .
22. ? ? s - p - ? ?
23. ? p - ; ?
24. , : , , . .
|
|
25. ? ? ? .
26. , . ?
27. - - ? ? .
28. ? ? , , .
29. - - ? ? .
30. , , ? ? . ?
31. p - - - ? ? .
32. : : Ba(OH)2 Mg(OH)2; Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)2; Cd(OH)2 Sr(OH)2?
33. , - ? . .
34. , , ? ? . ?
35. , , ? ? , .
36. , 4 f- 5 f - ? ? ?
37. , . ?
38. ? , , , , , , ?
39. , , ? ? , .
40. , , ? ? , .
.
.
41. ? ? () ?
42. ? ? N2, H2O, HI. ?
43. -? NH+4 BF-4? .
44. () BeCl2 4?
45. s- p- ? .
46. ? . , ? () ?
47. . ? , ? () ?
48. ? HCl, HBr, HI ? ?
49. , ? : , , , - ?
50. Cl2, H2Se, CCl4. ? () H2Se?
51. NaCl ? ? NaCl? ?
52. ? ? H2O HF, , , .
53. ? ? ? . .
54. ? , CH4, CH3OH, HCOOH, CO2.
55. , ? ?
56. () 2? d p- ? 2 ? ?
57. ? () BF3?
58. () Cl4? CCl4 ? ?
59. ? ? HF, HCl, HBr, HJ ? .
60. ? ABn, sp -, sp 2-, sp 3- ? .
( ) [1]
. , . , . . . , , . , , , , - . , , , .
- . (Q), , (D U) ():
Q = D U + A.
U , , , , . . - , . U , , . , , , . . , D U = U 2 U 1, D U (U 1) (U 2).
U 2 > U 1, D U > 0.
U 2 < U 1, D U < 0.
, , . , . . = D V, D V (V 2 - V 1). , - ( = const, = const) Q :
Q = D U + D V;
Q = (U 2- U 1) + (V 2 - V 1);
Q = (U 2+ V 2) (U 1+ V 1).
U + V ,
Q = 2 1 = D .
. , = const = const , . - Q ( ). Q =D .
(), (U), , (D ) . , - (Qv) (V = const; = const), D V = 0, D U, Qv = D U. , P, = const V, = const, .
D < 0 ( 2 < 1), D > 0 ( 2 > 1). D . (1840): , . : (D ..) (D ) , :
D ..= SD - SD .
1. (+5) - POCl3 . 111,4 . .
. , , , . , , Q D . D , . : , , . , .
,D < 0. , :
PCl5() + H2O() = POCl3() + 2HCl(); D ..= 111,4
2.
26() + 3×½2() = 22() +2(); D ..= 1559,87 .
, 2() 2() (. 1).
. () , . , . . 250 (298 ), 1 (101,3 ) D 0298 .
, D . , ,
2() + 32() = 26(); D =...
:
) 26() + 3×1/22() = 22() + 2(); D = 1559,87 ;
) () + 2() = 2(); D = 393,51 ;
) 2() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;
1
() D 0298
D 0298, / | D 0298, / | ||||
CS2 | +115,28 | CH3OH | 201,17 | ||
NO | +90,37 | C2H5OH | 235,31 | ||
C6H6 | +82,93 | H2O | 241,83 | ||
C2H4 | +52,28 | H2O | 285,84 | ||
H2S | 20,15 | NH4Cl | 315,39 | ||
NH3 | 46,19 | CO2 | 393,51 | ||
CH4 | 74,85 | Fe2O3 | 822,10 | ||
C2H6 | 84,67 | Ca(OH)2 | 986,50 | ||
HCl | 92,31 | Al2O3 | 1669,80 | ||
CO | 110,52 |
, . () 2, () 3, ():
26 +3×1/22 2 22 2 3/22 = 22 + 2 22 2;
D = 1559,87 + 787,02 + 857,52;
26 = 2 + 2; D = + 84,67 .
, D = 84,67 . , ,
D ..= 2D 2+ 3D 2 D 26 3×1/2D 2.
, ,
D 26 = 2D 2 + 3D 2 D ..;
D 26= 2(393,51) + 3(285,84) + 1559,87 = 84,67;
D = 84,67 .
3. :
C2H5OH() + 32() = 22() + 2(); D =?
, , C2H5OH() +42,36 : C2H5OH(); 2(); 2() (. 1).
. D C2H5OH(). :
C2H5OH() = C2H5OH(); D =+42,36 .
+42,36 = 235,31 D 25().
D 25() = 235,31 42,36 = 277,67 .
D , :
D ..= 2(393,51) + 3(285,84) + 277,67 = 1366,87 .
4. Na2CO3 25,10 , Na2CO3×102 66,94 . Na2CO3 ( ).
. ;
) Na2CO3 + aq = Na2CO3 × aq; D = 25,10 ;
) Na2CO3×102 + aq = Na2CO3× aq; D = +66,94 .
() () ( 2), :
Na2CO3+102 = Na2CO3×102; D = 92,04 ;
.. Na2CO3×102 92,04 .
61. Fe2O3 .
: 847,7 .
62. C2H5OH C2H4() . , .
: 45,76 .
63. (+2) :
FeO() + () = Fe() + CO2(); D = 13,18 ;
() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 283,0 ;
2()+1/22() = 2(); D = 241,83 .
: +27,99 .
64. CS2(). , .
: +65,43 .
65. () , 4() 2(). ?
: 206,16 .
66. CS2() . , .
: +230,43 .
67. . , . , 10 ?
: 78,97 .
68. :
2() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;
()+2() = 2(); D = 393,51 ;
4 + 22() = 22() + 2(); D = 890,31 ;
: 74,88 .
69. :
() + 1/22() = (); D = 635,60 ;
2()+1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;
() + 2() = ()2(); D = 65,06 ;
: 986,50 .
70. 3135,58 . 66().
: +49,03 .
71. N2 . 877,76 . N2().
: +81,55 .
72. NO(). NH3 ().
: 226,18 .
73. : 3() + 3/22() = 2() + 22(); D =? , , 3() +37,4 .
: 726,62 .
74. , . 25(), , 11,5 308,71 .
: 277,67 .
75. : 66() + 7×1/22() = 62() +2(); D =? , , +33,394 .
:-3135,58 .
76. 26(), . 1 3 ?
: 63742,86 .
77. : 4NH3() + 3O2() = 2N2() + 62(); D = 1530,28 . NH3().
: 46,19 .
78. SrCl2 -47,70 , SrCl2×6H2O +30,96 . SrCl2.
: 78,66 .
79. CuSO4 CuSO4×5H2O 66,11 +11,72 . CuSO4.
: 77,83 .
80. - () H2O() 32,53 . .
: 635,6 .