.


:




:

































 

 

 

 





... . . . . . . .

VI VII .

 

 

. . . . . . .

 

. . .

. . .

 

1. .. . .: , 1998.

2. .. ..:, 1988.

3. .. . .: , 1986.

4. .. . .: , 1998.

 

1. .. . .: , 1983.

2. .. . .: 1985.

3. . .2, / . .. . .: , 1975.

4. .. . .: , 1997.

5. .., .., .. . .: . 1990.

6. .. . . .: . 1998.

 

 

  ,
  I II 1, 21, 41, 61, 81, 101, 121, 141, 161, 181, 201, 221, 241, 261, 281, 301, 321, 341, 361, 391,
  I II 2, 22, 42, 62, 82, 102, 122, 142, 162, 182, 202 222, 243, 262, 282, 302, 322, 342, 362, 392,
  I II 3, 23, 43, 63, 83, 103, 123, 143, 163, 183, 203 223, 243, 263, 283, 303, 323, 343, 363, 393,
  I II 4, 24, 44, 64, 84, 104, 124, 144, 164, 184, 204 224, 244, 264, 284, 304, 324, 344, 364, 394,
  I II 5, 25, 45, 65, 85, 105, 125, 145, 165, 185, 205 225, 245, 265, 285, 305, 325, 345, 365, 395,
  I II 6, 26, 46, 66, 86, 106, 126, 145, 166, 186, 206 226, 246, 266, 286, 306, 326, 346, 366, 396,
  I II 7, 27, 47, 67, 87, 107, 127, 147, 167, 187, 207 227, 247, 267, 287, 307, 327, 347, 367, 397,
  I II 8, 28, 48, 68, 88, 108, 128, 148, 168, 188, 208 228, 248, 268, 288, 308, 328, 348, 368, 398,
  I II 9, 29, 49, 69, 89, 109, 129, 149, 169, 189, 209 229, 249, 269, 289, 309, 329, 349, 369, 399,
  I II 10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, 210 230, 250, 270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 400,
  I II 11, 31, 51, 71, 91, 111, 131, 151, 171, 191, 211 231, 251, 271, 291, 311, 331, 351, 371, 391,
  I II 12, 32, 52, 72, 92, 112, 132, 152, 172, 192, 212 232, 252, 272, 292, 312, 332, 352, 372, 392,
  I II 13, 33, 53, 73, 93, 113, 133, 153, 173, 193, 213 233, 253, 273, 293, 313, 333, 353, 373, 393,
  I II 14, 34, 54, 74, 94, 114, 134, 154, 174, 194, 214 234, 254, 274, 294, 314, 334, 354, 374, 394,
  I II 15, 35, 55, 75, 95, 115, 135, 155, 175, 195, 215 235, 255, 275, 295, 315, 335, 355, 375, 395,
  I II 16, 36, 56, 76, 96, 116, 136, 156, 176, 196, 216 236, 256, 276, 296, 316, 336, 356, 376, 396,
  I II 17, 37, 57, 77, 97, 117, 137, 157, 177, 197, 217 237, 257, 277, 297, 317, 337, 357, 377, 397,
  I II 18, 38, 58, 78, 98, 118, 138, 158, 178, 198, 218 238, 258, 278, 298, 318, 338, 358, 378, 398,
  I II 19, 39, 59, 79, 99, 119, 139, 159, 179, 199, 219 239, 259, 279, 299, 319, 339, 359, 379, 399,
  I II 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400,
  I II 1, 22, 43, 64, 85, 106, 127, 148, 169, 190, 211 222, 243, 264, 285, 306, 327, 348, 381, 391,
  I II 2, 23, 44, 65, 86, 107, 128, 149, 170, 191, 212 223, 244, 265, 286, 307, 328, 349, 382, 392,
  I II 3, 24, 45, 66, 87, 108, 129, 150, 171, 192, 213 224, 245, 266, 287, 308, 329, 350, 383, 393,
  I II 4, 25, 46, 67, 88, 109, 130, 151, 172, 193, 214 225, 246, 267, 288, 309, 330, 351, 384, 394,
  I II 5, 36, 47, 68, 89, 110, 131, 152, 173, 194, 215 226, 247, 268, 289, 310, 331, 352, 385, 395,
  I II 6, 27, 48, 69, 90, 111, 132, 153, 174, 195, 216 227, 248, 269, 290, 311, 332, 353, 386, 396,
  I II 7, 28, 49, 70, 91, 112, 133, 154, 175, 196, 217 228, 249, 270, 291, 312, 333, 354, 387, 397,
  I II 8, 29, 50, 71, 92, 113, 134, 155, 176, 197, 218 229, 250, 271, 292, 313, 334, 355, 388, 398,
  I II 9, 30, 51, 72, 93, 114, 135, 156, 177, 198, 219 230, 251, 272, 293, 314, 335, 356, 389, 399,
  i ii 10, 31, 52, 73, 94, 115, 136, 157, 178, 199, 220, 231, 252, 273, 294, 315, 336, 357, 390, 400,  
  i ii 11, 32, 53, 74, 95, 116, 137, 158, 179, 200, 201 232, 253, 274, 295, 316, 337, 358, 361, 391,
  i ii 12, 33, 54, 75, 96, 117, 138, 159, 180, 181, 202 233, 254, 275, 296, 317, 338, 359, 362, 392,
  i ii 13, 34, 55, 76, 97, 118, 139, 160, 161, 182, 203 234, 255, 276, 297, 318, 339, 360, 363, 393,
  i ii 14, 35, 56, 77, 98, 119, 140, 141, 162, 183, 204 235, 256, 277, 298, 319, 340, 347, 364, 394,
  i ii 15, 36, 57, 78, 99, 120, 121, 142, 163, 184, 205 236, 257, 278, 299, 320, 322, 346, 365, 395,
  i ii 16, 37, 58, 79, 100, 101, 122, 143, 164, 185, 206 237, 258, 279, 300, 301, 323, 345, 366, 396,
  i ii 17, 38, 59, 80, 81, 102, 123, 144, 165, 186, 207 238, 259, 280, 281, 302, 324, 344, 367, 397,
  i ii 18, 39, 60, 65, 86, 107, 128, 145, 166, 187, 208 239, 260, 261, 282, 303, 325, 343, 368, 398,
  i ii 19, 40, 44, 66, 87, 108, 129, 146, 167, 188, 209 240, 241, 262, 283, 304, 326, 342, 369, 399,
  i Ii 20, 23, 45, 67, 88, 109, 130, 147, 168, 189, 210 221, 242, 263, 284, 305, 327, 341, 370, 400,
  i Ii 2, 24, 46, 68, 89, 110, 131, 148, 170, 190, 201 223, 241, 265, 281, 306, 328, 341, 371, 391,
  i ii 3, 25, 47, 69, 90, 111, 132, 149, 171, 191, 202 224, 242, 266, 282 307, 329, 342, 372, 392,
  i ii 4, 26, 48, 70, 91, 112, 133, 150, 172, 192, 203 225, 243, 267, 288 308, 330, 343, 373, 393,
  i ii 5, 27, 49, 71, 92, 113, 134, 151, 173, 193, 204 226, 244, 268, 284, 309, 331, 344, 374, 394,
  i ii 6, 28, 50, 72, 93, 114, 135, 152, 174, 194, 205 227, 245, 269, 285, 310, 332, 345, 375, 395,
  i Ii 7, 29, 51, 73, 94, 115, 136, 153, 175, 195, 206 228, 246, 270, 286, 311, 333, 346, 376, 396,
  i ii   8, 30, 52, 74, 95, 116, 137, 154, 176, 196, 207 229, 247, 271, 287, 312, 334, 347, 377, 397,
  i ii 9, 31, 53, 75, 96, 117, 138, 155, 177, 197, 208 230, 248, 272, 288, 313, 335, 348, 378, 398,
  i ii 10, 32, 54, 76, 97, 118, 139, 156, 178, 198, 209 231, 249, 273, 289, 314, 336, 349, 379, 399,
  i ii 11, 33, 55, 77, 98, 119, 140, 157, 179, 199, 210 232, 250, 274, 290, 315, 137, 350, 380, 400,
  i ii 12, 34, 56, 78, 99, 120, 122, 158, 180, 200, 211 233, 251, 275, 291, 316, 321, 341, 361, 381,
  i ii 13, 35, 57, 79, 100, 103, 121, 159, 169, 182, 212 234, 252, 276, 292, 317, 325, 342, 362, 382,
  i ii 14, 36, 58, 80, 85, 104, 123, 160, 161, 183, 213 235, 253, 277, 293, 318, 324, 343, 363, 383,
  i ii 15, 37, 59, 61, 84, 105, 124, 141, 162, 184, 214 236, 254, 278, 294, 319, 323, 344, 364, 384,
  i ii 16, 38, 60, 62, 83, 106, 125, 143, 163, 185, 215 237, 255, 279, 295, 320, 322, 345, 365, 385,
  i ii 17, 39, 41, 63, 82, 101, 126, 142, 164, 186, 216 238, 256, 280, 296, 301, 321, 346, 366, 386,
  i ii 18, 40, 42, 61, 81, 102, 127, 144, 165, 187, 217 239, 257, 271, 297, 302, 326, 347, 367, 387,
  i i 19, 21, 43, 62, 87, 103, 128, 145, 166, 188, 218 240, 258, 272, 298, 303, 327, 348, 368, 388,
  i ii 20, 22, 44, 63, 88, 104, 129, 146, 167, 189, 219 223, 259, 273, 299, 304, 328, 349, 369, 389,
  i II 1, 24, 42, 64, 89, 105, 130, 147, 168, 190, 220 222, 260, 274, 300, 305, 329, 350, 370, 390,
  i ii 3, 25, 43, 65, 90, 106, 131, 148, 169, 191, 201 221, 250, 275, 281, 301, 330, 341, 361, 392,
  i II   4, 26, 44, 66, 91, 107, 132, 149, 170, 192, 202 222, 251, 276, 282, 302, 331, 342, 362, 393,
  i ii 5, 27, 45, 67, 92, 108, 133, 150, 171, 193, 203 224, 252, 277, 283, 303, 332, 343, 363, 394,
  i ii 6, 28, 46, 68, 93, 109, 134, 151, 172, 194, 204 223, 253, 278, 284, 304, 333, 344, 364, 395,
  i ii 7, 29, 47, 69, 94, 110, 135, 152, 173, 195, 205 225, 254, 279, 285, 305, 334, 345, 365, 396,
  I ii 8, 30, 48, 70, 195, 111, 136, 153, 174, 196, 206 226, 255, 280, 286, 306, 335, 346, 366, 397,
  i ii 9, 31, 49, 71, 96, 112, 137, 154, 175, 197, 207 227, 256, 261, 287, 307, 336, 347, 367, 398,  
  i ii 10, 32, 50, 72, 97, 113, 138, 155, 176, 198, 208 228, 257, 262, 288, 308, 337, 348, 368, 399,
  i ii 11, 33, 51, 73, 98, 114, 139, 156, 177, 199, 209 229, 258, 263, 289, 309, 338, 349, 369, 400,
  i ii 12, 34, 52, 74, 99, 115, 140, 157, 178, 200, 210 230, 259, 264, 290, 310, 339, 350, 370, 391,
  i ii 13, 35, 53, 75, 100, 116, 121, 158, 179, 181, 211 231, 260, 265, 291, 311, 340, 351, 371, 392,
  i ii 14, 36, 54, 76, 86, 117, 122, 159, 180, 182, 212 232, 241, 266, 292, 312, 321, 352, 372, 390,
  i ii. 15, 37, 55, 77, 85, 118, 123, 160, 162, 183, 213 233, 242, 267, 293, 313, 322, 353, 373, 392,
  i ii 16, 38, 56, 78, 84, 119, 124, 142, 161, 184, 214 234, 243, 268, 294, 314, 323, 354, 374, 393,
  i ii 17, 39, 57, 79, 83, 120, 125, 141, 163, 185, 215 235, 244, 269, 295, 315, 324, 355, 375, 396,
  i ii 18, 40, 58, 80, 82, 101, 126, 143, 164, 186, 216 236, 245, 270, 296, 316, 325, 156, 376, 397,
  i ii   19, 23, 59, 61, 81, 102, 127, 144, 165, 187, 217 237, 246, 271, 297, 317, 326, 357, 377, 398,
  i Ii 20, 21, 60, 62, 100, 103, 128, 145, 166, 188, 218 238, 247, 272, 298, 318, 327, 358, 378, 399,
  i ii 4, 22, 51, 63, 99, 104, 129, 146, 167, 189, 219 239, 248, 273, 300, 319, 328, 359, 379, 400,
  i ii 5, 23, 52, 64, 98, 105, 130, 147, 168, 190, 220 240, 249, 274, 281, 320, 329, 360, 380, 391,
  i ii 6, 24, 53, 65, 97, 106, 131, 148, 169, 191, 211 231, 250, 275, 282, 301, 330, 351, 381, 392,
  i ii 7, 25, 54, 66, 96, 107, 132, 149, 170, 192, 212 232, 251, 276, 283, 302, 334, 352, 382, 393,
  i ii 8, 26, 55, 67, 95, 108, 133, 150, 171, 193, 213 233, 252, 277, 284, 303, 335, 353, 383, 394,
  i ii 9, 27, 56, 68, 94, 109, 134, 151, 172, 194, 214 234, 253, 278, 285, 304, 336, 354, 384, 395,
  i ii 10, 28, 57, 69, 93, 110, 135, 152, 173, 195, 215 235, 254, 279, 286, 305, 337, 355, 385, 396,
  I ii 11, 29, 58, 70, 92, 111, 136, 153, 174, 196, 216 236, 255, 280, 287, 306, 338, 356, 386, 397,
  i ii 12, 30, 59, 71, 91, 112, 137, 154, 175, 197, 217 237, 256, 264, 288, 307, 339, 357, 387, 398,
  i ii 13, 31, 60, 72, 90, 113, 138, 155, 176, 198, 218 238, 257, 265, 289, 308, 340, 358, 388, 399,
  i ii 14, 32, 41, 73, 69, 114, 139, 156, 177, 199, 219 239, 258, 266, 290, 309, 331, 359, 389, 400,
  i ii 15, 33, 42, 74, 88, 115, 140, 157, 178, 200, 220, 240, 259, 267, 291, 310, 332, 350, 370, 391,
  i ii 16, 34, 43, 75, 87, 116, 131, 158, 179, 181, 201, 221, 260, 268, 292, 311, 333, 341, 365, 392,
  i ii   17, 35, 44, 76, 86, 117, 132, 159, 180, 182, 202 222, 241, 269, 293, 312, 321, 342, 367, 393,
  i ii 18, 36, 45, 77, 85, 118, 133, 160, 161, 183, 203 223, 242, 270, 294, 313, 322, 343, 369, 394,
  i ii 19, 37, 46, 78, 84, 119, 134, 141, 162, 184, 204 224, 243, 261, 295, 314, 323, 344, 371, 395,
  i ii 20, 38, 47, 79, 83, 120, 135, 142, 163, 185, 205 225, 244, 562, 296, 315, 324, 345, 375, 396,
  i ii 1, 39, 48, 80, 82, 110, 136, 143, 164, 186, 206 226, 245, 463, 297, 316, 325, 346, 377, 397,
  i ii 2, 40, 49, 61, 81, 111, 137, 144, 165, 187, 207 227, 246, 471, 298, 317, 326, 347, 380, 398,
  i ii 3, 24, 50, 62, 100, 112, 138, 145, 166, 188, 208 228, 247, 972, 299, 318, 327, 348, 383, 399,
  i ii 4, 25, 51, 63, 99, 113, 139, 146, 167, 189, 209 229, 248, 273, 300, 319, 328, 349, 364, 381,
  i ii 5, 26, 52, 64, 98, 114, 140, 147, 168, 190, 210 230, 249, 274, 281, 320, 329, 350, 365, 392,

 

 

 

, (). , 98594, 94, 94.

1

 

 

1. 9 28. ?

2. . ?

3. s -, p -, d - f - ? ?

4. . ?

5. : 4 s 3 d; 5 s 4 p? ? 21.

6. 17 29. 4 s - 3 d - . ?

7. : 4 d 5 s; 6 s 5 p? ? 43.

8. 21 23. 3 d ?

9. : n = 4; l = 0; m l = 0; m s = ½. , 3 d ?

10. 17 29. ?

11. , : ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 53 s 1; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 6; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 63 d 4; ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 64 s 2 ) 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 d 2? ?

12. 9 28. ?

13. 45 53. ?

14. m i l = 0; 1; 2 3? s -, p -, d - f - ? .

15. n, l, ml m s, ? ?

16. d - s - p - ? 46, , , , .

17. 24 33, , , 4 s - 3 d - . ?

18. s -, p -, d - f - ? s -, p - d - ?

19. ? - p 7- d 12- ? ? 22 .

20. 32 42, , , 5 s - 4 d - . ?

 

. .

21. , : - , , . .

22. ? ? s - p - ? ?

23. ? p - ; ?

24. , : , , . .

25. ? ? ? .

26. , . ?

27. - - ? ? .

28. ? ? , , .

29. - - ? ? .

30. , , ? ? . ?

31. p - - - ? ? .

32. : : Ba(OH)2 Mg(OH)2; Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)2; Cd(OH)2 Sr(OH)2?

33. , - ? . .

34. , , ? ? . ?

35. , , ? ? , .

36. , 4 f- 5 f - ? ? ?

37. , . ?

38. ? , , , , , , ?

39. , , ? ? , .

40. , , ? ? , .

 

.

.

41. ? ? () ?

42. ? ? N2, H2O, HI. ?

43. -? NH+4 BF-4? .

44. () BeCl2 4?

45. s- p- ? .

46. ? . , ? () ?

47. . ? , ? () ?

48. ? HCl, HBr, HI ? ?

49. , ? : , , , - ?

50. Cl2, H2Se, CCl4. ? () H2Se?

51. NaCl ? ? NaCl? ?

52. ? ? H2O HF, , , .

53. ? ? ? . .

54. ? , CH4, CH3OH, HCOOH, CO2.

55. , ? ?

56. () 2? d p- ? 2 ? ?

57. ? () BF3?

58. () Cl4? CCl4 ? ?

59. ? ? HF, HCl, HBr, HJ ? .

60. ? ABn, sp -, sp 2-, sp 3- ? .

 

( ) [1]

. , . , . . . , , . , , , , - . , , , .

- . (Q), , (D U) ():

Q = D U + A.

U , , , , . . - , . U , , . , , , . . , D U = U 2 U 1, D U (U 1) (U 2).

U 2 > U 1, D U > 0.

U 2 < U 1, D U < 0.

, , . , . . = D V, D V (V 2 - V 1). , - ( = const, = const) Q :

Q = D U + D V;

Q = (U 2- U 1) + (V 2 - V 1);

Q = (U 2+ V 2) (U 1+ V 1).

U + V ,

Q = 2 1 = D .

. , = const = const , . - Q ( ). Q =D .

(), (U), , (D ) . , - (Qv) (V = const; = const), D V = 0, D U, Qv = D U. , P, = const V, = const, .

D < 0 ( 2 < 1), D > 0 ( 2 > 1). D . (1840): , . : (D ..) (D ) , :

D ..= SD - SD .

1. (+5) - POCl3 . 111,4 . .

. , , , . , , Q D . D , . : , , . , .

,D < 0. , :

PCl5() + H2O() = POCl3() + 2HCl(); D ..= 111,4

2.

26() + 3×½2() = 22() +2(); D ..= 1559,87 .

, 2() 2() (. 1).

. () , . , . . 250 (298 ), 1 (101,3 ) D 0298 .

, D . , ,

2() + 32() = 26(); D =...

:

) 26() + 3×1/22() = 22() + 2(); D = 1559,87 ;

) () + 2() = 2(); D = 393,51 ;

) 2() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;

 

1

() D 0298

D 0298, / D 0298, /
CS2 +115,28 CH3OH 201,17
NO +90,37 C2H5OH 235,31
C6H6 +82,93 H2O 241,83
C2H4 +52,28 H2O 285,84
H2S 20,15 NH4Cl 315,39
NH3 46,19 CO2 393,51
CH4 74,85 Fe2O3 822,10
C2H6 84,67 Ca(OH)2 986,50
HCl 92,31 Al2O3 1669,80
CO 110,52      

, . () 2, () 3, ():

26 +3×1/22 2 22 2 3/22 = 22 + 2 22 2;

D = 1559,87 + 787,02 + 857,52;

26 = 2 + 2; D = + 84,67 .

, D = 84,67 . , ,

 

D ..= 2D 2+ 3D 2 D 261/2D 2.

, ,

D 26 = 2D 2 + 3D 2 D ..;

D 26= 2(393,51) + 3(285,84) + 1559,87 = 84,67;

D = 84,67 .

3. :

C2H5OH() + 32() = 22() + 2(); D =?

, , C2H5OH() +42,36 : C2H5OH(); 2(); 2() (. 1).

. D C2H5OH(). :

C2H5OH() = C2H5OH(); D =+42,36 .

+42,36 = 235,31 D 25().

D 25() = 235,31 42,36 = 277,67 .

D , :

 

D ..= 2(393,51) + 3(285,84) + 277,67 = 1366,87 .

 

4. Na2CO3 25,10 , Na2CO3×102 66,94 . Na2CO3 ( ).

. ;

) Na2CO3 + aq = Na2CO3 × aq; D = 25,10 ;

) Na2CO3×102 + aq = Na2CO3× aq; D = +66,94 .

() () ( 2), :

Na2CO3+102 = Na2CO3×102; D = 92,04 ;

.. Na2CO3×102 92,04 .

61. Fe2O3 .

: 847,7 .

62. C2H5OH C2H4() . , .

: 45,76 .

63. (+2) :

FeO() + () = Fe() + CO2(); D = 13,18 ;

() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 283,0 ;

2()+1/22() = 2(); D = 241,83 .

: +27,99 .

64. CS2(). , .

: +65,43 .

65. () , 4() 2(). ?

: 206,16 .

66. CS2() . , .

: +230,43 .

67. . , . , 10 ?

: 78,97 .

68. :

2() + 1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;

()+2() = 2(); D = 393,51 ;

4 + 22() = 22() + 2(); D = 890,31 ;

: 74,88 .

69. :

() + 1/22() = (); D = 635,60 ;

2()+1/22() = 2(); D = 285,84 ;

() + 2() = ()2(); D = 65,06 ;

: 986,50 .

70. 3135,58 . 66().

: +49,03 .

71. N2 . 877,76 . N2().

: +81,55 .

72. NO(). NH3 ().

: 226,18 .

73. : 3() + 3/22() = 2() + 22(); D =? , , 3() +37,4 .

: 726,62 .

74. , . 25(), , 11,5 308,71 .

: 277,67 .

75. : 66() + 7×1/22() = 62() +2(); D =? , , +33,394 .

:-3135,58 .

76. 26(), . 1 3 ?

: 63742,86 .

77. : 4NH3() + 3O2() = 2N2() + 62(); D = 1530,28 . NH3().

: 46,19 .

78. SrCl2 -47,70 , SrCl2×6H2O +30,96 . SrCl2.

: 78,66 .

79. CuSO4 CuSO4×5H2O 66,11 +11,72 . CuSO4.

: 77,83 .

80. - () H2O() 32,53 . .

: 635,6 .

 





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