to make , to:
was made to return.
.
2. to cause + ( ) + () , ...:
The earthquake caused these layers to be removed.
, ().
3. to allow + + () + +:
The chief of the expedition allowed the tents to be set up on the slope.
.
to enable + + :
This enabled all the corrections to be made in time.
.
14. , .
I
1. Esarhaddon, in accordance with Assyrian custom made the suppliants pay dearly for the help given them, for tribute and takes were imposed on their cities.
2. The American Indians, particularly the Plain Tribes, had a system of gestures or sign-language that enabled members of different tribes, speaking totally different languages, to communicate with one another, and also with the white man,
3. His acts of violence had caused him to be bitterly hated by the natives who surrounded him.
4. Between the Coral islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Magellan ordered his sounding line to be lowered.
5. The use of the Chinese written characters, which required a different sign for each word, was made easier by introducing signs for syllables. This helped to make the written language conform more nearly to everyday speech.
6. The alteration of the position of the accent had caused another change in pronounciation to take place, namely, the change of the vowel into [] in the second syllable.
7. In this part of the tool there is an irregularly made hole of a size large enough to allow a strong cord to pass through for the purpose of suspension.
8. Some opponents of that school would have us believe that the historical studies were simply disguised theorising.
9. The warm climate and the mild temperature of this part of the country caused man in Early Palaeolithic time, to prefer stations in the open, and so he encamped on the lower slopes of hills, or on the sandy shores of rivers.
10. This author unites the Basque in one group with the African and the Semitic languages, making the Caucasian languages to form a second branch.
II
11. This porosity, added to the unbroken violence of the winds, makes all the trees planted on the island lead so hard a life; the only chance for them is huddling together.
12. In as far as 23 this text will help to an increased understanding of the relation between king and people and of the political thought of the Assyrians, it will enable the
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23 in as far as , 54
debt owed them by succeeding civilization to be more clearly appreciated.
13. The greatest contribution of Coleridge's Shakespearian criticism is his continual insistence that every work of art must be judged by its own organic laws. If this sometimes led him to explain away Shakespeare's faults or to ascribe them to another hand, it also led him to recognize qualities which earlier critics had missed.
14. In this part of the land it is the universal practice to allow the land to lie fallow for at least two years after a single crop has been raised, while crops are raised from other lands.
15. Like many other hypersensitive children, this boy could not, or would not, bring himself to ask for those books, and his conscience prevented him from reading them on the sly.24
16. At the same time maritime importance of the Dutch caused a great many Dutch nautical terms and other Dutch words to be borrowed by English.
17. Madness of jealousy in Othello causes its possessor to destroy the woman who represents everything in the world for him.
18. He loved to perform such experiments as the one in which liquids of various colours are made to form different layers in a single vessel.
19. Most specimens were either carved or impressed with characters giving the name of a place or person, leading us to believe they were produced in professional workshops.
20. When the king heard that the awful dragon was outside his very gates, demanding food, he had his servants give the beast two sheep a day (a legend).
21. It is said that in 1219 Bishop Richard Poore ordered an arrow to be shot from the heights of Old Sarum and where it fell ho built Salisbury Cathedral as we see it now.
, for (for-phrase). for +
24 on the sly , ,
to , , .
for + smth/smb + to +
For the man to enter
For everybody to see
(
)
, , . , . . ( , ):
For this material to be published this year you must have it typed as soon as possible.
, .
for :
There isn't enough time for the material to be published this year.
, ( ).
It is quite possible for this material to be published very soon.
,
( ).
The main problem is for this material to be published as soon as possible.
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, ( ).
asked for the documents to be sent to him by post.
, ( ).
The only conclusion for him to draw was the following.
, , ().
For his thesis to be published this year is out of the question.
He , ().
, , :
This is for the reader to judge. .
1. for + + .
1. It is possible for a word to consist of only one sound, as when you say a in a house.
2. Arrangements were also made for large numbers of books to be made available in that reading-room.
3. He examined the problem and decided that the only solution was for him to return to the order of his old life.
4. When the Heathen king of Kent Ethelbert, heard of Augustin's landing with some forty companions he sent orders for them not to move off Thanet.
5. Suddenly the painter appeared at the door of the studio, and made signs for the visitors to come in.
6. It is less easy for a common language to make its way in a country like Germany which for centuries was politically subdivided and which had no capital.
7. Here, it seems to me, is another very obvious and vital point 25 for a specialist to explain.
8. It is well known, for example, that with people who have often discussed some subject together a few words are enough for them mutually to understand some very complex point, which it would take many words for them to explain to an outsider.
9. It must be almost unheard of for a play to be performed at separate places under completely different titles.
point : .
10. For tattooing to be perfect when the subject26 reached adulthood, it had to be started early, generally at the age of eight.
11. The really important conclusion for us to reach is that chance has played an extraordinary part in the survival of the written and graphic evidence of the period under investigation.27
12. The normal way in which culture continues is for one generation of a society to transmit its culture to the next generation.
13. I also believe that the general system and terminology indicated briefly in chapter I has enabled to state many grammatical facts more clearly than has hitherto been possible. But of this is for others to judge.
14. Though in natural circumstances each race retains its own language, it is possible for a people to abandon its own tongue and to take another, and it is also possible for foreigners to be absorbed in large numbers without any perceptible effect upon the speech.
15. But the exceptions here are too numerous for any rule to be stated.
16. Even in the second century trade was not sufficiently organized for the rural hamlets to be supplied with raw iron from centralized foundries.
17. It is impossible for an author, and it would be impossible for the whole body of writers, to alter at will the prevalent type of sentence-articulation.
18. However, for any empirical data to contribute much to an understanding of a complex phenomenon like the learning of a second language, they need to be related to a fairly comprehensive formulation of theory.
( Complex Object). , . , :
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26 subject , .
27 under investigation .
I wish my sister to help me.
, .
I saw him get off the bus.
, .
, , . , .
.
Infinitive Indefinite , Infinitive Perfect .
to expect, to hope :
We expect this book to appear on sale very soon. , .
:
| to desire | --- , | to expect | , |
| to hate | to hold | ||
| to intend | to imagine | , | |
| to like | , | to judge | |
| to mean | to know | ||
| should (would) like | to prove | , | |
| to want | to reckon | ||
| to wish | , | to suppose | |
| to assume | -- , | to show | |
| to believe | -- | to think | , |
| to consider | |||
| to estimate |
t:
to feel -----
to hear
to notice to observe to perceive to see
to watch
2. .
1. Historians suppose the name London to come from two Celtic words.
2. We sincerely wish good relations to be established between our two countries, said one of the delegates.
3. In Middle Ages people believed the earth to be the centre of the Universe.
4. We know Australia to be the only continent situated in the southern hemisphere.
5. First we thought the small island to be uninhabited.
6. Presently we saw him emerge from the station, cross the street and disappear into the building.
7. At the Central Station, from behind a convenient pile of luggage the men watched the train come in.
8. The whole problem is so important that I would like you to go over the facts once more.
II
9. It was explained that, although several authorities had included the Melanesian languages in the Malay-Polynesian family, Leenhardt thought them to be a separate family.
10. All other indications showed death to have taken place slightly later than the approximate time put in the report.
11. It is a carefully prepared essay which proves its author to be a man of cultivation, taste, imagination, education and refinement.
12. We often hear people complain that the materialists seek to reduce everything in the world, including life and mind, to a system of soulless mechanisms. This refers to mechanistic materialism.
13. Ever since I was a child I have watched and helped the men of my clan make their weapons.
14. That language (German) which in Goethe and his contemporaries had achieved the highest excellence of precision of flexibility, we have seen in our time under the nazis reach the very depths to which a language can possibly descend.
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15. Supposing this conjecture to be well-founded, these objects acquire a peculiar interest as representing in a certain degree the actual work of the inhabitants.
16. In short, an examination of the sources of the Modern English vocabulary shows beyond the possibility of contradiction the once prevalent notion that all modern European words were derived from roots equally old, and could be traced back to a single ancestral tongue, to be a mistake induced by a superficial uniformity presented by languages to their speakers.
( Complex Subject). ( ) , .
| a) You ) The book | seem to know German. is said to be very interesting. |
, , , , .
, , - :
) , , .
) , (, , ).
, . , , , .
]. , ;
| to seem | |
| to appear | -- , - |
| to prove to turn out to come out to happen to chance | > | , > |
| J , | |
11. ,
| to believe , | to say |
| to suppose , | to show - |
| to think , | to report |
| to consider to hold > to take | to announce |
| to assume -- , | to state , |
| to know () | to claim - , |
| to intend , | to hold |
| to mean , | to suffer , () |
| to expect , , | to pronounce , |
| to estimate | to find , |
| to prove 28 | to see |
| to observe | |
| to feel , |
III. :
to be likely ,
28 to prove ; .:
proved to be right. , .
was proved to be right. ( ), on .
to be not likely ,
to be unlikely , to be sure ,
to be certain ,
, ; .:
is considered to be... , ... was considered to be... , ...,
. Infinitive Indefinite Continuous , a Infinitive Perfect Perfect Continuous ; .:
is said to go to Moscow. , . is said to have gone to Moscow. , .
. to expect (to be likely) : is expected to come tomorrow. , .
5. , .
1. Engle, Saxon and Jute are considered to belong to the same Low German branch of the Teutonic family.
2. Historians appear to know but little of his life.
3. In Tacitus chronicles the Germans are reported to be people ploughing their fields.
4. The Jumping Frog by Mark Twain is said to have pleased its author best of all he wrote in that style.
5. Such places were held to be frequented by evil spirits.
6. The religion of the English is stated to be the same as that of the whole German family.
7. The bulk of the people is said to have dwelt along the middle Elbe and on the Weser.
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8. The name of Jutes happens to be still preserved in their district of Jutland.
9. A number of German tribes appears to have drawn together into the people of Saxons. These are known to have made the land between the Elba and the Ems their homeland.
10. The Island of Britain is known, to have been revealed to the Roman world by Julius Caesar in the year 55 . .
11. The peoples of all ancient civilizations are known to have made maps.
12. Tiw, the dark God, to meet whom was death, is supposed to have lent his name to Tuesday.
13. Great changes are expected to take place in the economies of these small countries in the near future.
14. Coal has been known to exist in India since 1772, and is said to have been worked as far back as 1775.
15. In 1611 Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford for good.29
16. Latin was supposed to be the only language worthy of study, and it was studied for a practical end.30
. - :
Our story may be said to begin here.
, .
Can be said , ...
Cannot be said , ...
4. , .
1. As regards 31 the sound of words, we may almost be said to speak one language and to write another.
2. There is one important class of words to which our analysis does not seem to be applicable: proper nouns.
29 for good , .
30 for... end c... .
31 as regards - ( ).
3. These plays cannot be said to represent an unqualified advance.
4. Neither of the parties 32 can be said to have inified or planned their actions.
5. Four departments of the British Museum might justly be considered to constitute the British National Library.
6. The individuality which characterises any tongue may be said to consist of those general features, which distinguish it from other tongues.
7. In this broad sense of the term all the literature of the early nineteenth century may be said to be a product of Romanticism.
8. If this can be shown to be true, it would greatly improve our understanding of the original code.
- e . ( which, that, who, ), , , , : , . .:
Then conies a group of ballads which are known to date
from the 14th century.
, , , XIV .
II to think + likely+. II likely, . , likely , -- :
Now let us turn to the words likely to have taken their origin in Latin.
32 parties : () .
5 .. 65
, , , ().
Now we shall describe some objects thought to belong to this class.
, , , .
5. . I
1. The place of discovery was a hall which appears to have been the king's throne-room.
2. In the fifth century A. D. the one country that is known to have borne the name Angeln or England lay in the district now called Sleswick.
3. By far 33 the greatest of this school of dramatists is Marlow who may well 84 be said to have prepared the way for Shakespeare.
4. All the mental functions and activities which are said to be products of mind as distinct from 35 matter, are products of matter.
5. If details remain in which we disagree, they hardly can affect the general picture of this art that our different works will be found to contain.
6. Such ideas are, however, unscientific. Why? Because they assert that the processes they are supposed to be investigating take place without any cause.
II
7. This is one of the oldest roads in England, believed indeed to be prehistoric.
8. Cult-objects may also be identified by the peculiar form, known from other sources to belong exclusively to some group of cultic equipment.
9. Japan had the drama, said in its very beginning to have been associated with its religion.
33 by far .
34 well may, might .
35 as distinct from .
10. The Classical Scholar will appreciate that the civilization, reputed to have furnished Greece with many myths, was very ancient and very real.
.
1. Human beings seem to have had the power of speech as far back as history can trace them; and animals, while they can make certain limited sounds and at times give them certain limited meanings, cannot be said to possess speech in the same sense that humans possess it.
2. When a book is greatly admired and often read, the language in which it is written is likely to be imitated to some extent by those who read it.
3. Practically, all of this material turns out under careful scrutiny to have not only value in itself, but some relevance to the subject in hand.36
4. This reference to Greece must not however, be taken to mean the Greek civilization of historic times, which belonged to a much later period.
5. Very often, even many English-born speakers may be heard to say that they pronounce letters, not sounds.
6. Later, Armenian and Albanese, and a few ancient languages known to us only from scant written records, proved also to belong to the Indo-European family.
7. The date of the original composition of the play cannot be determined. But it is proved to have been acted at Dresden in 1626, and is commonly supposed to date back much further.
8. No modern writer would be likely to write the following.
9. The relative conciseness of Latin has been thought to be shown by the fact that there are fewer words in a Latin sentence than in a normal English translation of it.
10. In order to explain, or rather better to understand the sudden and glorious rise of Elisabethan 37 literature,
36 in hand (at, on hand) - (.). 37 Elisabethan (1533 1603).
5* 67
it is necessary to take a glance at the historical events which preceded it, and which may be said to have done much to make it possible.
11. The Chinese word for mother, for instance, is ma, even though Chinese is not supposed to have any connection with the languages of the West
12. Further investigations along the same lines 33 are likely to produce not only interesting information about the development of Byzantine painting, but also about the history of the whole European theatre.
13. Edward refused to admit baronial claims which were not attested in writing or could not be shown to have operated since the coronation of Richard I in 1190.
14. The Guildhall at Exeter, said to be the oldest municipal building in the country, is well worth a visit.
15. These fragments proved to be parts of a few large tablets.
16. Articles of this description appear to occur in Germany, and a number of specimens derived from the Island of Ru:gen, and thought to belong to this class, were presented for inspection by Mr. R.
17. Books of more lasting interest demand fuller treatment, 39 and the presence of bibliographies, tables and illustrations should be indicated on cards likely to be consulted by research workers.
18. The lake-dwellers of the stone age possessed a species of domestic dog of middle size, which they seem to have much valued, if the fact that it was not used as food, unless in cases of extreme need, warrants such a conclusion.
19. From 15801596 appeared the plays which may be said to represent the second stage of the Drama.
20. It is very probable that other deposits of the same nature will be found in the neighbouring territory close to the same ancient lake. This seems to be indicated by the remains of fossil animals recently discovered near Ambrona.
21. The French Revolution, which may be said to have begun with the Fall of the Bastille in 1789, was the outcome of centuries of oppression in France; and the ideas of reform were in the air long before its actual outbreak.
38 along... the lines ,
39 treatment -- .
.
.
1. These conditions are sufficiently homogenious to be grouped together.
2. Sanscrit, the earliest of the Indo-European tongues to make its appearance in written form, definitely displays the pitch-accent 40 pattern.
3. There is a distinction to be made between these classes of words.
4. He was the first English painter to portray his native countryside so sincerely.
5. The second book, to be published shortly, will deal with the history of the national-liberation movement,
6. These writers were no pedants. They were practical men who were accustomed to use their pens for practical purposes, and who wrote to make themselves understood, not to display their cleverness or learning.
7. To begin with, dialectal varieties are as numerous in Tuscany as anywhere else in the peninsula.
8. But the exceptions are too numerous here for any rule to be stated.
9. A name, to be a complete word, must, as the logicians put it, possess both denotation and connotation.
10. It is significant, however, that over most of England and the Lowlands of Scotland the language which came to predominate was English.
11. This ornament is to be found later in the group of Shibe in the Altai.
12. To consider in turn each of the predecessors of Byzantine culture, which did or could affect its development, and to give a general outline of the character of the contribution of each is the aim of this chapter.
13. In 1542, nearly fifty years after Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese reached Japan, the first Europeans to view its shores.
14. A few additional factors of a geographical character which may have exercised an influence on artistic developments of one sort or another may also be noted.
40 pitch-accent ,
15. More curious is the mixture of literary and colloquial styles, of high and low, to use the eighteenth- century terms.
16. This work was compiled by a learned monk named Dionysios of Fourna, who appears to have lived at the end of the fourteenth century.
17. The vital problem is to examine the premises on which he based his conclusions.
18. Even at the beginning of the seventeenth century the Confucian scholars used to shave their heads like Buddhist priests.
19. It remains, however, for much of this material to be published in an easily accessible form.
20. To his sovereign or lord a man was bound to be faithful, to his parents dutiful, and to his elder brother respectful.
21. The tomb of Shakespeare is in the chancel. A flat stone marks the spot where the bard is buried. There are four lines inscribed on it, said to have been written by himself.
22. The population was divided into a number of different classes: serfs were to be found, and slavery existed.
23. To prepare civil officials, schools were established in the capital and provinces.
24. The only remaining traces of these tribes are pit dwellings and shell mounds, and they must have been in the most primitive stages of culture.
25. The people of this period are supposed to have lived in huts of skins, leaving no traces behind them.
26. In olden days the swordsmen 41 used to travel all over Japan in order to perfect themselves in this art.
27. The essential fault of this work is to be found in the very plan.
28. The captain managed to secure his sextant, but when he went back for his chronometers, the chart-room was too deep in water for him to be able to reach them.
29. A distinction which one might be tempted to make from our material is that between literary and everyday language.
30. The country was torn to pieces, as it were, politically and socially. All over Japan the feudal lords were at war with one another, The masses must have suffered very much.
41 swordsman .
31. Turning now from prose to poetry, we have to inquire, what are the characteristics of Modern English verse which the nature of the language has permitted or compelled to acquire?
32. The occasions when a Japanese samurai was bound to commit suicide were innumerable.
33. In addition to the local and unimportant peculiarities to be found in the British Isles, many different dialects must be springing up in other parts of the world.
34. My chief object in writing this chapter has been to make the reader realize that language is not exactly what a one-sided occupation with dictionaries and the usual grammars might lead us to think, but a set of habits, of actions, and that each word and each sentence spoken is a complex action on the part of the speaker.
35. Much of the material a biographer ought to consult, moreover, is widely dispersed or difficult of access.
36. As a rule, the poet is believed to be governed by language more than he governs it.
37. To assign all the words of English to their original sources is not to determine the mode of their entrance into English.
38. The dictionary shows that the number of words which may have originated in this way is very large.
39. The attempt is sometimes made to fix laws or rules for correct English in disregard 42 of the fact that the language changes, and that the standard or correct expression cannot be made to depend entirely on the use of an earlier time.
40. All the principal species of animal now raised for food seem to have been domesticated already in the Near East and Europe by societies still in the neolithic stage.
41. The polished stone celt 43 used to be regarded by archaeologists systernatists as the type fossil of the neolithic phase. And it was of course used by most but all,44 neolithic societies, for carpentry, as in mesolithic times.
42. The student may well 45 feel a little disappointed that, after listing as a topic a survey of the languages of the world, linguistic science turns out to be able to give so little information about so many of them.
42 in disregard , .
43 celt (.).
44 most but all : . 45 may well .
