As Russia makes fundamental changes to its economic and social structures, the European Union is providing practical help through its Tacis Programme, by financing know-how and supporting equipment from a vide range of public and private organizations. This allows Russian knowledge and skills to be combined with western experience.
This know-how can be transferred in many different ways, including
- training and policy advice;
- development of new laws;
- setting up new institutions such as training centers and employment offices;
- restructuring existing institutions such as banks and service institutions;
- establishing partnerships between organizations in Russia and the European Union such as universities, businesses, Chambers of Commerce;
- supporting organizations not linked to the government, but which benefit the community such as professional groups, associations, unions and citizens initiatives;
- establishing pilot projects to provide models which can be applied elsewhere, such as modernizing bakeries, restaurants or retail shops.
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1. The funds are used for providing the population with free education and medical care.
2. Scientists from different countries are cooperating in their research and peaceful application of their discoveries.
3. The transmission system is sensitive to noise.
4. The satellites are in the orbit.
5. A lot of communication satellites are to be launched for experimental purposes.
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1. The new satellites have improved our ability to communicate.
2. The satellites have to contain receivers and transmitters.
3. The country has the all necessary material and technical resources to fulfill this program.
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1. Do radio engineering and television find use in our national economy? Yes, they do.
2. Their investigations do expand our knowledge of nature.
3. Cosmonauts do special exercises to maintain normal physiological and psychological states.
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1. This is a sorting machine which can be used for parcel sorting.
2. Using this machine we raised the labour productivity.
3. The number of stations is growing, the number of antennas is growing too.
4. Satellites are ideal for establishing communication with mobile objects.
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1. Science and technology achieved great progress in space research.
2. The number of required channels is always large.
3. Linear UT modules are interconnected by distinct message distribution and circuit switching networks.
4. The resources concentrated in the state budget are spent for the development of the national economy.
VI. . 2 3 .
Russia reform priorities
The Russian society and economy are going through a process of a profound and rapid change. Tacis is working in close cooperation with the Russian government to support this reform process and its stated priorities.
Stabilization of the economy
A new legislative base for the operation of a market economy is already in place. The private sector in Russia is rapidly emerging, with a growing number of small and medium-sized enterprises. The first phase of privatization was completed in July 1994 and industrial policy has shifted emphasis to enterprise restructuring.
Administrative reform and reconstruction of the social protection system
The reform of the public administrative system is under way. To reduce unemployment and the rapid deterioration in living conditions for part of the population, the government is concentrating on the restructuring of the system of social protection at both central and local level.
Agriculture
The agriculture sector continues to experience sharply falling output and extreme operational difficulties. It is therefore still heavily subsidized by the government. The authorities have initiated the process of privatization of land.
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1. The proposals were addressed to international companies because of the need to provide the line with up-to-date equipment.
2. Dry air is a good insulator.
3. The number of station is growing, the number of antennas is growing too.
4. Placement of speakers is up to the individual.
5. To reduce the square wave form we are to use a very large number of components.
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1. The budget has four stages: preparation, authorization, execution, and audit.
2. Congress is to complete action on authorization and appropriation bills by the start of the fiscal year.
3. We have tried different approaches to overcome these difficulties.
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1. Did the member states receive the formal notification of these two directives in July 1990? Yes, they did.
2. Exceptions do, however, occur.
3. Denmark does all to maintain the lowest call costs.
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1. Looking to the short-term, Telefonica will be introducing free phone, split charging, personal number, credit card calling, and audiotex services.
2. There is much talk of providing a two-way capability in cable TV system.
3. Like many operators Telefonica is looking to build more intelligence into and improve the efficiency of the network.
4. The encoder represents a processor transforming the source output into a form which can be transmitted through the channel.
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1. Linear UT was designed to welcome the evolution of the Integrated Services Digital Network.
2. As a general rule, detection techniques based on minimization of probability of error are nonlinear.
3. Morse invented the Morse code.
4. The number of required channels depends on the number of users.
VI. . 2 .
The traditional economy
As the name implies, the answers to the What, How, and Who questions are decided by tradition in these economies.
Traditional economic systems are usually found in the more remote areas of the world. Such systems may characterize isolated tribes or groups, or even entire countries. They are less common today than were in earlier decades. Typically in a traditional economy most of the people live in rural areas and are engaged in agriculture or other basic activities such as fishing or hunting. The goods and services produced in such a system tend to be those that have been produced for many years or even generations. They are produced as they always have been. In short, the question of what the traditional society produces and how it is produced are determined by very slowly changing traditions.
Who gets to keep what is produced in such an economy? Since there is little produced, there is little to go around. Most individuals live near a subsistence level. They have enough to sustain them but little more than that. In some years when the harvest is poor, some will not be able to subsist and will either leave the society or die. In better years when the yield is high, there may be more than enough to allow subsistence. When such a surplus exist, it will be distributed traditionally. For example, the bulk of the produce might go to a tribal chief or large landholder, while the balance is distributed according to custom.
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1. The whole production process is controlled by an information system.
2. All sources models in information theory are random process models.
3. The network of post-offices rendering direct services to population is growing year after year.
4. Another technique which is more effective is to employ the cross-correlation function.
5. The 553-metre TV tower is in the northern section of Moscow.
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1. To design electronic computers we had to pass from radio valves to transistors.
2. Many foreign scientists from different countries have visited our institute.
3. Radio electronics in space communication has a great future.
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1. The computer did the work with the lightning speed.
2. Intermodule communication does occur with high-level protocols.
3. Do radio engineering and television find use in our national economy? Yes, they do.
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1. The cost of sending a telegram depends on the number of words in it.
2. The atmospheric humidity is one of the most important factors influencing the radio reception.
3. Using new technologies we raised labour productivity.
4. Research programs are becoming more and more complex year after year.
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1. The flexible interconnection structure is designed to satisfy the heterogeneous demands on complex telephone networks.
2. Scientists proposed a new method to study these phenomena.
3. Radio equipment installed in aircraft operates under very difficult conditions.
4. Radio transmitters usually radiate modulated signals.
VI. . 2 3 .
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The Command Economy
Countries such as Albania, China are examples of command economies. Groups of high-level technicians made up of engineers, economists, computer experts and industry specialists known as planners advise political leaders who develop and implement a plan for the entire economy.
Essentially, it is the planners who decide what goods and services will be produced. If they want ship production expanded and mining operations cut back they issue the orders to do so. If more food is needed the planners might direct tractor production to be increased or fertilizers to be imported from the West. Those same plans might also encourage labour to remain on the farms and storage facilities to be made available to move and hold farm products.
How are goods produced in a command economy? The planners decide which products will be made. They decide where to locate a new truck assembly plant and whether the factory will use more labour or more modern machinery. It is the planners too with guidance from the countrys political leadership who decide who will receive the goods and services produced.
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1. Peripheral processors are dedicated to interfacing telephone terminals and service circuits.
2. The personal or family budget is a financial plan to balance income and expenses.
3. These components are in production.
4. Highly reliable receivers are contributing to the successful operation of earth stations.
5. Many automated control systems are to be introduced in industry.
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1. A number of tests has shown that transistors are very sensitive.
2. To understand this problem we have to read a lot.
3. A modern broadcast transmitting station has an aerial.
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1. Budget does help individuals to balance income and expenses.
2. Denmark does all to maintain the lowest call costs.
3. Did the European Commission publish its Green Paper on satellite communications? Yes, it did.
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1. The software factory provides a set of integrated tools supporting the whole software lifecycle.
2. This is a sorting machine which can be used for parcel sorting.
3. Using this machine we raised labour productivity.
4. The implementation of each process is building up into a library to translate, compile, link, and test programs.
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1. Each phase of the software development cycle is integrated into a unique production environment.
2. The value of voltage applied to the input determines the output voltage.
3. The proposed line will employ fiber optic technology to its best advantage.
4. The Green Paper proposed several policy issues.
VI. . 2 .
The Market Economy
A market or free enterprise economy is one in which the decisions of many individual buyers and sellers interact to determine the answers to the questions of What, How, and Who.
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In addition to buyers and sellers there are several other essential elements in a market economy. One of these is the private property. By private property we mean the right of individuals and business firms to own the means of production. Although markets exist in traditional and command economies the major means of production (firms, factories, firms, mines, etc.) are usually publicly owned. That is they are owned by a group of people or by the government. In a market economy the means of production are owned by private individuals. Private ownership gives people the incentive to use their property to produce things that will be sold and earn them a profit.
This desire to earn profit is a second ingredient in a market economy. Often referred to as the profit motive, it provides the fuel that drives sellers to produce the things that buyers want, and at a price they are willing to pay. The profit motive also gives sellers the incentive to produce at the lowest possible cost.
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1. The components are chosen according to very strict constraints such as high reliability and commercial availability.
2. The chief characteristics of a wave are its amplitude and wavelength.
3. Scientists from different countries are cooperating in their research and employ of their discoveries.
4. A lot of communication satellites are to be launched for experimental purposes.
5. The budget is in a constant state of change.
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1. Congress has to complete action on authorization and appropriation bills by the start of the fiscal year.
2. The new satellites have improved our ability to communicate.
3. The PISU (Peripheral Interface Signaling Unit) has 16 peripheral signaling units.
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1. Does the camera tube convert optical image into electrical signals? Yes, it does.
2. We did all we could to improve the image quality.
3. Metals do conduct electricity better than semiconductors.
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1. Telegraphy is a method of transmitting messages over a distance by means of electrical impulses sent through wires.
2. A magnetic field is surrounding any wire carrying electric current.
3. The switching block concentrates any expands of the 256 slots assigned to the terminations.
4. Using this device we obtained better results.
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1. Calculations are based on the rates and turnovers of the larger banks operating on the interbank credit market.
2. In developed nations interbank market rates are employed to determine the rates on commercial credits.
3. The index obtained in this way can be used to work out the profitability of the interbank market.
4. Michael Faraday discovered induced electric current.
VI. . 2 .
Budgetary process
An annual national budget was not required in the US until passage of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921. This statute places on the president the responsibility for reviewing agency estimates and coordinating them with the overall government planning. To assist the president the act created the Bureau of the Budget; in 1970 the bureau was renamed the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).OMB examines hold hearings and meetings with agency staff as a part of the process of assembling the presidents budget which is presented to Congress in late January of each year.
Congress separates the budget into parts that are examined by the authorization and appropriation committees. To guide this activity in 1974 the Congress created budget committees that prepare at least two annual resolutions: one in the spring to provide targets for the committees, and the other in the fall to set binding totals. Resolutions specify totals for revenue, outlays, budget authority, expected surplus or deficit, and any change in public debt. Outlays and budget authority are further divided into functional categories for such broad areas as agriculture, defense, health, and transportation. The 1974 statute also created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to give the Congress an independent source of technical assistance.
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1. The main requirements for a broadcast receiver are reliability and simplicity of adjustment.
2. To provide further flexibility, agencies are authorized to transfer funds from one appropriation account to another or from one program to another within the same account.
3. The biggest broadcasting station in Russia is in Moscow.
4. The amount of stored data concerning each customer is not so big and archives have still to reach critical volumes.
5. The exact number of Russian banks is difficult to pinpoint as it is still growing rapidly.
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1. The number of Russian banks has grown by more than 200 times the original amount during the last ten years.
2. This satellite has a capacity of 250 telephone circuits.
3. The number of small banks has to decrease as Russias economic reforms develop.
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1. Does minimum size of authorized capital depend upon the range of banking operations conducted by the bank? Yes, it does.
2. Cosmonauts do special physical exercises to maintain normal physiological and psychological sates.
3. Modern radio engineering semiconductors do have advantages over the electron valves.
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1. Depending on the type of bar code used, the entry can include letters and/or digits.
2. The problem for choosing a platform for a bank computer system is very important.
3. They are constantly working to improve their systems and information technologies.
4. The non-conducting material separating the plates is called dielectric.
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1. It is now obvious that the amount of data processed by banks is not growing as fast as was once believed.
2. These cards were originally developed as data files.
3. The slow growth in processed information is explained by the banking technologies.
4. Satellites established communication with mobile objects.
VI. . 2 .
Government budget
Budget is some forecast for expenditures and revenues for a specific period of time. As a planning document a budget enables businesses, governments, private organizations, and households to set priorities and monitor progress towards selected goals. To achieve budgetary objectives, it may be necessary to set aside savings (surpluses) or to borrow from the outside resources (deficits).
The personal or family budget is a financial plan that helps individuals to balance income and expenses. A business budget is generally used as a tool to formulate intelligent decisions on the management and growth of a business venture. The most complicated budgetary process involves a government budget, which is a plan for the collection and expenditure of mony needed to carry out the social, military, and economic policies of an administration.
For federal, state, and local governments in the United States the chief executive officer for example, the president, governor, or mayor prepares the budget on the basis of estimates submitted by department and agencies. The budget is then presented to a legislative body, which may modify the estimates and rearrange priorities. The legislature enacts appropriation bills to provide government agencies with authority to enter into financial obligations.
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A
acceleration
accumulation
accurate
achievement
activity
advantage
agent
all-round
anarchy ,
annual
application
approach
approximately
arduous
assistance
auditor ,
authorization
available
B
benefit ,
bond ,
branch
budget
business venture
C
calculation ,
capital
capital surplus
carry ,
chain of distribution ()
checking account
chart
command economy
commercial bank
compete
computer ,
considerably
consumption
control
control system
convey
cooperate
cope
cost
creative
credit
credit terms
cultural level
currency ,
cushion ,
D
data , ( ..,
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data transmission
dept
design ,
deterioration
develop ,
device ,
division
do e-business
dominance
dividend ,
E
economic crisis
education
efficiency
employ ,
enormous
ensure ,
enterprise
equip
equipment
evaluation
exchange , .
experiment
expenses
export
external
F
facilities 1) ,
2)
fidelity
finance (n)
finance (v)
fiscal year
forecasting
foundation
fund
G
global company
globalization
goods ,
govern
grant loans to smb -
H
hard-to-reach
high performance
I
import ,
improve ,
incentive
income
inestimable
influence
information ,
installation ,
introduce
investigation
investment ,
investor
L
labour
launch
law
legal , ,
living standards
liability
loan ,
loan bank
M
maintain
management
manufacture ,
market (v) ,
market economy
material input
means ,
measure 1) ; 2)
measurement
memory
message
mixed economy (
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mode of production
money circulation
mutual assistance
N O
national wealth
net (adj) ,
net cost
net (v) ,
P
partnership .
pension
phenomenon
planning
policy ,
potential
power system
printed matter
private
production
production relations
productive force
productivity
profit
progress 1) ; 2) ,
prominent ,
promote (v)
property
publicize
purpose
Q
quality
quantity
quote
R
range
reception
record , ,
reduce ,
release ,
relevant ,
remote
reliability
reproduction
requirement
research
reverse
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S
satellite
secure ,
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short-term loan
significance
size
sole proprietorship
solution
sort
space communication
stability
stable ,
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stock (n) , ,
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T
take into account
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undertaking
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year end
