4. The chemical processes of out bodies involve enormously complex sequences of reactions, details of these processes being far from complete understanding. Nevertheless great progress has been made in our understanding of the processes that occur in the body.
5. The first half of this century might be termed the Golden Age of Physics because so many discoveries in understanding the structure of molecules, atoms and nuclei were made. By the same virtue we may be in the midst of a Golden Age in Biochemistry. The next few years of research may bring much increased understanding of chemical processes in cells.
V. 5- :
What phenomena are not yet understood in biochemistry?
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I. 1- 4- . 1,2 4- .
.
1. hazardous work
2. sophisticated machines -
3. power engineering
4. remote-controlled equipment
5. to call for
ROBOT TECHNOLOGY
1. Robots are machines of special type. They are considered to replace man wherever he is to do hard, monotonous or hazardouswork.1 Robots are sophisticated machines-2 Matt> of them are fitted with artificial intellect systems, special programming devices and electronic controllers Their development required the work of specialists in several technical fields, together with specialists in biophysics and physiology.
2. The idea of robot technology was born in the forties, when 
the foundations of atomic power engineering3 the basis of technological progress were laid. The materials scientists must deal with are radioactive. Besides, the equipment used in obtaining and studying them is dangerous for man. At the same time work with radioactive substances, assembly and disassembly of atomic reactors, the servicing of machines and devices in radioactive zones require human effort. Remote-controlled equipment4 helps to solve this problem.
3. Research into radioactive materials is becoming even more complicated, new problems arising in atomic power engineering and space technology. This calls for5 newer manipulators and de-.vices to be handled by an operator. An analysis of these ideas and their solutions show two entirely different approaches. The first one is to bring the operator as close to the object as possible, the other requires remote control. Both approaches have already found practical application not only in atomic power engineering but in underwater exploration as well.
4. Our research and design organizations create robots for assembly operations, robots being used today for assembling various electronic circuits. Mention should be made that robots are in *wide use for performing welding and painting.
5. Robot technology emerged at the junction of two sciencesmachine mechanics and control theory. Its further progress requires a wide application of modern control machines and systems, handled by scientists specializing in the theory of working processes, biology and physics.
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. 5- :
What does further progress of robot technology require?
2
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I. , 1- 4- . 1,3 4- .
1. the All-Union Institute of Crop Farming -
2. plant-breeder
3. homological chains
4. hereditary modifications
5. to substantiate
6. viable tubers
THE ALL-UNION INSTITUTE OF CROP FARMING1 NAMED AFTER N.I. VAVILOV
1. The All-Union Institute of Crop Farming in Leningrad (known by its Russian abbreviation VIR) is the biggest institution in the USSR the main task of which is the collection and study of the world's vegetative resources to facilitate the selection of agricultural crops.
2. The Institute is named after Nikolai Vavilov, a great botanist, geneticist and plant-breeder.2 He is known to be the organizer and the first and permanent director of VIR from 1924 to1940.
3. In 1920, Vavilov discovered the law of homological chains.3Everything had started with the discovery by Vavilov of a rare wheat variety during one of his expeditions, whose leaves did not spread off from the stalk but were tightly pressed to it. He predicted then that other grain crops such as maize, rice, barley, etc., could have the same shape, thereby laying the foundation for the law of homological chains and hereditary modifications.4
4. Several years later, Vavilov put forward the idea that every crop, no matter where it grows, has a perfectly concrete place of origin. Later he substantiated5 the theory of eight regions of the planet - original centres where everything that grows today on cultivated plantations and in wilderness had once evolved.
5. Having become the director of the Institute, Vavilov set forth its three main tasks. The first one was to gather samples of all plants cultivated by man and of all their relatives from all over the world. The second was to learn to conserve viable tubers6 and seeds as long as possible retaining their basic elements and properties. And the third was to study all these samples and to recom 
mend some of them to plant-breeders and others directly to farmers.
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III. 5- :
What was the third main task of the Institute set forth by N.I.Vavilov?
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I. , 1- 4- . 1,3 4- .
1. livestock farming -
2. to provide for
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3. chemicalization
4. pesticides and herbicides
SCIENCE AND FOOD INDUSTRY
1. The Food Programme adopted by the Soviet Union includes problems relating to raising the productivity of crop and livestockfarming,1 wide use of chemistry in agriculture, development of more efficient agricultural machinery andothers. The political report to the XXVII Congress of the CPSU points out that to achieve the quick growth of agricultural production it is important to develop and modernize the material and technical basis of agriculture.
2. The application of new machines in agricultural production.has been one of the greatest developments in agriculture during the past few years. Modern farm machines are used to make the farmer's work easier and more productive.
3. The Programme provides for2 the use of the latest scientific achievements and at the same time sets complicated tasks before science. Take, for example, chemicalization3. In little less than ten years the production and application of mineral fertilizers in the country has risen approximately three-fold. Nitrogenous and phosphorous fertilizers made by the Soviet chemical industry possess superior physical, chemical and mechanical properties. Soviet scientists have contributed a great deal to the development of future complex fertilizers.
4. A steady growth of agricultural production would be impossible without using pesticides and herbicides4. A series of new pesticides is currently undergoing state tests. These tests are mainly aimed at examining the biological properties 6f the chemical substances which must be harmless to man, animals and soil.
5. Much attention is given to the evolution of new varieties and breeds of animals that is of great importance to intensive farming. Agricultural production must be based in the main on A continuous change of varieties (every 5-7 years). This will help to make full and quick use of the latest achievements of selection and genetics.
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III. 5- :
What is of great importance to intensive farming?
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I. 1- 4- . 1,2 3- .
1. along with-
2. accessible
3. low fares
4. in the mid-20's - 20-
PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN SOVIET CITIES
1. More than 180 million people live in Soviet cities, and everyday practically all of them use public transport which is the main city passenger carriage. Along with1 the industrialization and collectivization of agriculture the young Soviet state solved the problem of establishing urban transport. From the very beginning the USSR has oriented itself on public transport which ensures the mass carriage of passengers and which is easily accessible2 to all for its low fares.3
2. Public transport in Soviet cities was started with the construction of tram lines and with the arrangement of bus traffic. A san initial measure in the mid-20's4 the first buses were bought in Britain and Germany. Since then the Soviet Union has started preparing for the mass production of buses and trolley-buses. Fifty years ago the first Soviet trolley-bus line was built in Moscow. The vehicles for it and also for the next new routes were supplied by the Soviet plants.
3. Passengers evaluate the Metro (underground railway) in the Soviet Union as the best type of transport. The decision to build the first Soviet subway in the capital was taken in 1931. The Metro was considered to be the main means of solving the problem of carrying passengers fast and with low fares.
4. Thousands of people, mainly young ones, many of whom had accumulated experience of work in coal and ore mines, took part in the construction of the Moscow Metro. It took three years to build the first 11.6-kilometre-long Metro line with 13 underground marble-granite stations. We know regular traffic of trains to have been started since May 15,1935, and then the construction of the Metro has been continuing.
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5. In 4984 an underground railway was put into operation in Minsk. Metroes are under construction in Novosibirsk, Gorki and Kuibyshev. Plans have been drawn up to build underground rail-,ways in Riga, Rostov-on-Don, Sverdlovsk and Dnepropetrovsk.
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. -5- :
When was the Metro built in Minsk?
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( - )
I. 1- 4- <?. 2,3 4- .
1. commodity exchange
MONEY UNDER SOCIALISM
1. Money is indispensable in a society in which commodity exchange1 takes, place. In a commodity exchange money plays the role of a medium and measure of value, a commodity expressing the value of all other commodities. In this capacity money is a universal equivalent.
2. Money is known to perform its usual functions under socialist commodity production. All commodities are compared in value to the money commodity, so that it serves as a measure of their value.
3. Money performs its function as a means of payment: when wages and salaries are paid to factory and office.workers, when socialist enterprises get loans from the State Bank and then pay, them off, when money income is distributed among collective farmers, etc.
4. We know money also to be a means of accumulation. Plants, factories and state and collective farms keep their earning sand spare money at the State Bank.
The state uses these accumulations and savings to expand production, create reserves arid provide credits to various enterprises and organizations.
5. The state judges the efficiency of an enterprise by means of money. The money expenditures of an enterprise, show the amount of labour required to produce a particular kind of goods, the amount of raw materials and fuel, the cost of management and the cost of delivering goods to the consumer through the retail trade network.
Money control over the performance of socialist enterprises is an effective method of economic management.
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III. 5- :
What is an effective method of economic management?
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I. 1- 4- . 1,2 3- .
1. to felt ()
2. cohesiveness
3. according to - ;
4. ball
5. fineness -
TEXTILE FIBRES
1. All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are known to be called textiles. They are made of either long or short fibres. These fibres can be felted1 together or made into a continuous thread or yam and then Woven or knitted. So from beginning to end in the production of felt, in the spinning of a very coarse thread or in the weaving of the finest silk cloth the whole process of textile manufacture consists of the combination pf fibre with fibre.
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2. No material is more common in the world than fibres; it is the form of all vegetable and most animal substances. To be suitable for textile purposes a fibre must possess certain properties and qualities such as length, strength, cohesiveness2, elasticity and many others.
3. There are many different fibres now use, principal among them being wool, silk, cotton, flax. These fibres have come to us from prehistoric times and are natural fibres. Today numerous chemical fibres are the achievements of the development of science of the 20th century. According to3 their origin the fibres may be divided into vegetable ones (cotton, flax), fibres of animal origin (wool, silk) and chemical or man-made fibres (rayon, capron, nylon, etc.).
4. Cotton is the most important vegetable fibre used in textile industry. The cotton fibre is a soft substance growing around the cotton seed. When the seeds are ripening, their fibres spring out of the burst ball4 and are picked manually or mechanically. The strength of cotton fibres is relatively high in spite of their fineness5and it further increases when wetted.
5. Cotton fibres are, however, not very elastic that is why cotton fabrics crease easily. Absorbing moisture well cotton fibres can be easily dyed. As cotton fibres are good conductors of heat, cotton textiles have a cooling effect when worn in hot weather.
II. 4- , Participle II , .
. 5- :
Why do cotton fibres crease easily?
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I. 1- 4- . 2,3 4- .
1. in terms of
2. swing -
3. gear-cutting attachment
4. one cannot help mentioning-
5. work - .
MACHINE TOOLS
1. The lathe generally is considered to be the primary machine tool, both because it will do a greater variety of work than any other tool and because almost any other kind of machine tool maybe manufactured with the lathe. Modern lathes are highly efficient, accurate and complex devices, capable of-doing a great quantity and variety of work. A well constructed engine lathe when properly operated, produces work accurate within 0.001 of an inch or even less.,
2. The size or capacity of a lathe is given in terms of1 swing2and length of bed. The swing refers to the diameter of work to be rotated in the lathe. The length of a lathe shouldn't be confused with the maximum distance between centres when the tailstock is moved to the rear end of the lathe bed. The maximum distance between centres, however, determines the length of the stock to be machined.
3. Lathes are made in a variety of types and sizes from the small precision lathe found in watch repair shops to the immense machines used in manufacturing big guns. In recent years manufacturers have produced attachments to be employed on a lathe to perform functions or operations formerly done on a special machine: a milling attachment, a boring attachment, and a gear-cutting attachment.3 Such devices greatly extend the variety of work that can be performed on a lathe.
4. Lathes in general being used for a great variety of operations, naturally there are many different designs and sizes. The various types are usually classified either with respect to some characteristic constructional features or with reference to the general class of work for which the lathe was designed, the most common type lathe being usually known by manufacturers as an engine lathe or lathe.
5. Speaking about the types of lathes one cannot help mentioning4 the automatic lathe. In these lathes all the tool movements are automatically controlled although the work5 must be inserted and removed by an operator.
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III. 5- :
How is the work inserted and removed in an automatic lathe?
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I. 1, 2, 3 5- . 2,3 5- .
1. lead -
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2.to bring about . )
SAFETY DEVICES
1. Electricity can be dangerous if it is carelessly used. A faulty installation or a defective piece of equipment can cause a serious fire and there is also the danger of an electric shock, with possible fatal consequences. Many precautions should be taken and safety devices should be used to minimize these dangers, insulation, earthing, fuses and automatic cut-outs being among the most common safety devices.
2. Insulation is the covering of a conductor with a non-conducting material to prevent it from touching another conductor. The materials are used vary according to the nature of the conductor and the condition in which it is used. It has to withstand extremes of temperature and resist corrosion. The insulation of power leads1 to portable appliances must be flexible and also very strong.
3. Any piece of electrical apparatus having a metal body or frame, especially portable appliances such as electric irons, kettle sand power tools, must be earthed as a safety measure. Earthing is brought about2 by connecting the metal body or frame directly to earth with a thick conductor. In a 3-pin power plug the thickest pin is always to earth the connection. If a fault develops inside the apparatus or if the insulation on a flexible lead breaks down, an electric shock because of touching the apparatus may be avoided since the current will take the easier path back to earth.
4. 
The most common safety device and one which is used in every household installation is the ordinary fuse. This is simply apiece of wire to be connected in series in the circuit.
5. The fuse should be of such a resistance that it will melt and therefore break the circuit if the current flowing in the circuit exceeds a certain amount. When it happens, we say that the fuse "blows". It is very important that fuse wire of the correct amperage be used.
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III. 4- :
In what way is the fuse connected in the circuit?
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I. 2, 3, 4 5- . 3,4 5- .
VALVES AND TRANSISTORS
1. A valve is a device which allows electrons to flow in one direction only. In a radio valve this is the flow of electrons from cathode to anode. A simple thermionic valve is known to be called a diode because it has two electrodes, the cathode which is negative, and the anode, which is positive. It is called a thermionic valve because the cathode is in the form of a filament and when it becomes hot, negative electrons become free and are attracted towards the positive anode.
2. There are many different kinds of valves in a radio receiver, each being especially designed to perform different functions. A triode is a valve having three electrodes, an anode, a cathode, and a control grid.
3. A major development in electronics industry during recent years has been the gradual replacement of thermionic valves by transistors. A transistorized circuit is simpler, smaller, and mechanically stronger. Because of these advantages the transistor has contributed greatly to rapid development in other scientific fields, particularly space travel. A transistor is a semiconductor. This means that it is not entirely a conductor; nor is it an insulator. It is crystalline in structure and has three electrodes, a base, an emitter and a collector.
4. The main difference between a valve and a transistor is that while a valve amplifies, or gives a voltage gain, a transistor gives an increase in current. Transistors can be made from germanium, selenium, silicon and other substances.
5. The various components that go to make up a complicated electrical circuit may be connected to the circuit in two ways. If the supply is fed directly through each component in turn, they are said to be wired in series. If however the supply is taken to each one independently, then they are wired in parallel
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. 1- , :
Why is the thermionic valve called a diode?
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I. . 2,3 5- .
1. tallow,
2. bio-degradable
3. nutritive
4. alginate - ( )
5. pilot plant -
