1. . .
, , , , . .
, , .
( . stoicheion ,) .
( . atomos ) , .
( . moles- ) , .
. . , Zn, - N2, , S, , Sn, 2, Cl2 .. .
: , , , .
. . , , .
, . : , Na2O ..
, . : SO2, CO2 ..
, , . Al2O3 .
() . NaOH, Ca(OH)2 .. (NaOH), (()2) ..
, . : HCl, H3PO4 . . (HNO3, H2SO4) (HCl, HCN). , , (HNO3,HCl), (H2CO3, H2SO4), (H3PO4), (H4P2O7) ..
. () , (NaH2PO4; NaHCO3), ((CuOH)2CO3; Al(OH)2Cl). . .
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(r) (r) , .
Mr(H2O) = 2Ar(H) + Ar(O) = 2 1 + 16 = 18
(ν), (, ), 12 12, .. 6,021023.
() . . /.
r(H2O) = 18, (2) = 18 /
1. .
Na → NaOH → NaHSO4 → Na2SO4 → BaSO4
1. 2Na + 2 H2O = 2 NaOH + H2
2. NaOH + H2SO4 = NaHSO4 + H2O
3. NaHSO4 + NaOH = Na2SO4 + H2O
4. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 = 2 NaCl + BaSO4↓
1. (1748 . ..)
, , , .
2. (1808 . )
, .
3. (1803 . . )
, , .
4. (1808 . -)
( )
5. (1811 . .)
(, ) .
: ( , = const) . 1 6,02 1023 22,4 3 (t=0, =273 , =101,3 )
ν = 
ν= 
2. .
: 3,
(3) = r() + r() + 3r() = 40 + 12 + 3 16 = 100 /
:
; 
3. 100 10% .
: :
m() = 100
ω() = 10% Vo-?
+ 2 = 2
ν = 1 ν = 1
= 12 / VM = 22,4 3
100 100% - 10% = 90%, 
, 
. 
. 
1
:
1. , .
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2. ω()% .
3. , .
V=5,6 m()-? ω ()-?
1. N2 → NH3 *→ (NH4)2SO4 → NH 4 OH → NH4Cl → AgCl
m() = 3
m() = 5% m() -? ω (S)-?
2. Al → Al2O3 *→ AlCl3 → Al(OH)3 → Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 → BaSO4
m (-) = 20
ω ()-? %(-) = 10% m() -?
3. → 25 → 3 ( 4 ) 2 *→ 34 → (NH4)3PO4 → AlPO4
m() =0,8
ω() = 15% m(Fe) -? ω () -?
4. Fe(OH)3 → Fe2O3 * → Fe → FeSO4 → Fe(OH)2 → FeCl2
ω()=2%
V()=1,12 3 m() -? ω()-?
5. Cl2 * → SiCl4 → Si → SiO2 → Na2SiO3 → H 2 SiO 3
V()=4,48 3 m() -? ω(Al)-?
6. 4 → 2 * → FeCO3 → FeO → Al2O3 → Na 3 [Al(OH) 6 ]
m()-?
ω()=5% m()=15,3 ω()-?
7. BaS *→ BaO → Ba → Ba(OH)2 → BaJ2 → Ba 3 (PO4) 2
V-=1003
ω(N)-? =0,1 V()=?
8. HNO3 → NH 4 NO 3→ NH4OH * → NH3 → N2 → NO2
m()= 1
ω()=2% V()-? ω()-?
9. MgO → Mg → MgCl2 → MgCO3 *→ CO2 → KHCO 3
m()=5
ω()=8% m()-? ω(N)-?
10. NiO *→ Ni → NiSO4 → Ni(OH)2 → Ni(NO 3 ) 2 → NiCO3
V()=4,483 m()-? ω (Mn)-?
11. H2O2 → O2 → CO → CO2 *→ CaCO3 → Ca(MnO 4 ) 2
m()=?
ω()=10% m()=15,8 ω()-?
12. Cr(OH)3 → Cr2O3 → Cr *→ CrCl3 → Cr(OH)3 → K 3 [Cr(OH) 6 ]
V-=1503
ω(K)-? = 3 m()-?
13. K → K2S → K2O → KOH → K2 CrO4 * → BaCrO4
m()=20
ω()-? V()=11,23 ω (Na)-?
14. S *→ SO2 → SO3 → Na 2 SO 4 → Na2S → H2S
m()=0,5
ω()=1,5% m()=? ω(Na)-?
15. Sn(OH)2 → SnSO4 → SnS → SnO → Sn → Na 2 [Sn(OH) 4 ]
V-=1003
=0,2 m()-? ω ()-?
16. Pb → PbCl2 → Pb(NO3)2 *→ Pb(OH)2 → PbO → K 2 PbO 2
V =8,7 3
ω()=5% m ()-? ω(O)-?
17. S → H2S *→ SO2 → H2SO 3 → Na2SO3 → CuSO3
m()=8
ω()=4% ω()-? ω(Cu)-?
18. CuS *→ CuO → Cu → Cu(NO3)2 → Cu(OH)2 → (CuOH) 2 SO 4
V--?
ω(H)-? =0,1 m()=23,3
19. Na2ZnO2 → Zn(OH) 2 → ZnO → Zn → ZnSO4 *→ BaSO4
m()=86
ω(N)-? ω()=6% m()-?
20. Sr → Sr(OH)2 → Sr(NO 3 ) 2 → SrSO3 *→ SrO → SrPbO2
m-=200
m()-? %= 5% ω(S)-?
21. Rb2O * → RbCl → Rb → RbOH → Rb 2 SO 4 → Rb2CO3
m()=0,5 Vo-? ω(N)-?
22. I2 → HI → NH4I *→ NH3 → NH 4 HCO 3 → MnCO3
m()=2
ω(O)-? ω()=15% m()-?
23. Ni(OH) 2 → NiO *→ NiBr2 → NiS → H2S → NH4HS
m-=150
Vo-? % = 6% ω(Ca)-?
24. F2 *→ KF → HF → H2O → Ca(OH) 2→ CaHPO4
m()=50
Vo-? ω()=7% ω()-?
25. C → CO2 *→ Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO 3 → CaO → Ca(OH)2
2.
. . . ( H) , . ()- 1,00728 , . . (n) , ; 1,00867. , , (). , , , . , . .
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, , . . , , . ē , , 1,602-10-19 . 1/1837 .
, , - . - . , , (). (), (, l, ml). (n), (l) (ml) . , ( ). (, l, ml,ms). .
n ( , 1 7),
l - ( , 0 n -1):
| n | l | |
| 1 (K) | 1s | |
| 2 (L) | 0, 1 | 2s, 2p |
| 3 (M) | 0, 1, 2 | 3s, 3p, 3d |
| 4 (N) | 0, 1, 2, 3 | 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f |
ml - ( . , 0 l):
| l | m | ||
| S | |||
| P | 1, 0, -1 | ||
| D | 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 | ||
| F | 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3 |
ms - ( , : 1/2).
:
1. 2- : .. 2 ; s2p6d10f14 N=2 n2.
2. . : (n +l), n. :
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s25p66s25d15f14
3. - - , .
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. . . (1869 .) , .
.
: I , Li, Na, , Rb, Cs, Fr s‑ ; II Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra s- ( s- ); III , Al, Ga, In, Tl s- ‑ ; IV , Si, Ge, Sn, Pb s- - . III - VIII - - . d- . , () (), f- .
. .
, . . . . , , (). , . , . F (4,0), Cs, Fr (0,7).
, , , , . , . .
F , Rb, Cs, Fr , .
( ), : ( n) , s, s+p s+d ( d £6). s - p - , d .
, , 8 , , . , . . , , , ( ), ( = (8 - ) ).
, , :
- 1-2 s- . , , , . .
- 3-4 ns2np1-2. -, , . .
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- 5-7 ns2np3-4. -, , . .
- ns2np6 . .
- d- . . d- d0, d5, d10. d- , . d- , ns2(n-1)d10 s2 - d10.
1. Z =16. . .
Z = 16. 1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s2 3 p4 . 3 , 6 , . - . . +6 (3), -2 (2).
: 3 d
| 3 p | ||||||||
| 3 s | ¯ | |||||||
| ¯ | ||||||||
1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s2 3 p4 = 2 (2)
1 (*): 3 d
| 3 p | ||||||||
| 3 s | ||||||||
| ¯ | ||||||||
1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s2 3 p3 3 d1 = 4 (2)
2 (**): 3 d
| 3 p | ||||||||
| 3 s | ||||||||
1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s1 3 p3 3 d2 = 6 (3)
