| XIX . 1802 - . . (1803-1806). : , , . . . . . , , . , , , . . | to set to accept establishment way of life habits and customs |
Active Vocabulary
believe v
chart n , ,
convert v , ,
curiosity n ,
determine v , ,
discover v ,
explore v ,
inhabit n , ,
reason n , ,
route n , , ,
sail v ,
search n
v (for)
trade n , ,
travel v
valuable a ,
voyage n ,
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Additional Reading
Famous Russian navigators
At the start of the 18th century, Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, was determined to make his weak and backward country a great, modern empire. At that time, Siberia the vast expanse of land to the east of his empire was still mostly unexplored. He became interested in Siberia when he heard about the pelts (skins) of animals such as the sable that trappers1 sent back from Siberia. Peter the Great decided to bring it under Russian control. This would give Russia some useful ports on the Pacific Ocean. He also hoped to discover whether or not Asia was really joined to North America as he believed.
In 1724, the Tsar appointed Vitus Bering to lead the first expedition. His orders were to go to Kamchatka, in eastern Siberia, and build boats there. Then he was to sail north to find out whether North America and Asia were joined. The orders were simple, but the task was not. Bering returned without having proved for certain that Asia and North America are separated by sea. In 1734 Bering was placed in charge of2 an ambitious new project, known as the Great Northern Expedition. Its aim was to reach Alaska and what is now called the Bering Sea, and to explore the entire3 Arctic coast of Siberia. Ship-building for this sailing had been finished in Okhotsk by autumn 1740.
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Okhotsk vanished in the September fog, the last contours of shores melted in the distance, and the endless expanses of Okhotsk Sea opened before Vitus Berings packet boats. Captain-Commodore Bering was aboard the expeditions flagman St. Peter. Captain-Commodore Alexei Iljich Chirikov, his associate, was in command of St. Paul.
Having circumvented4 Kamchatka, both ships in October 1740 reached Avacha Bay, where the packet boat crews founded Petropavlovsk Harbour (the future Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski). Both the harbour and town were named so in honor of the expedition ships. And that is where the Russian seamen wintered.
Having successfully wintered in Avacha Bay, the St. Paul and St. Peter on June 4, 1741 sailed in search of the Land of Gama (in those days that was the name of America). The ships course was plotted to the southeast. On reaching 46o N. lat without finding that land, both packet boats turned to the northeast. On June 20, in dense fog, a normal occurrence in those places, the navigators lost each other, and continued their voyage independently.
Vitus Bering aboard the St. Peter sailed to the south, and on July 20 discovered an island christened St. Ilia. On July 26th, the voyagers saw Kodiak Island, and two days later discovered Tumannyi Island (now called Chirikov Island). On the next day, the snowpeaked mountains of Alaska appeared before the navigators eyes. Then Bering and his crew discovered one after the other a great number of islands. Those discoveries naturally gladdened the seafarers. But the severe sailing conditions, the monotonous food, and the shortage of water gradually exhausted6 the men, and twelve crewmembers died from scurvy7 on the way.
From the second half of September, the St. Peter was constantly beset8 by autumn storms. Food and water reserves melted rapidly, and the navigators energy depleted9 rapidly. On November 4, having noticed an unknown uninhabited island, Bering directed the packet boat there. The situation was hopeless, and the crew could no longer fight the sea and diseases. So, Bering decided to run the ship on sand shallow, where the crew disembarked10. This was the beginning of severe wintering. Soon nineteen men died from exhaustion and scurvy. On December 8, 1741, the seamen who survived buried Captain-Commodore Vitus Bering. The island where his remains were interred11was called Bering Island in his honor, and the group of Pacific islands the Commander Islands. The crewmembers that survived built a small sailboat from remains of the packet boat, and on August 27, 1742 returned to Kamchatka.
On July 15, 1741, the St. Paul under A. I. Chirikov gained North America. Significantly, Chirikovs crew slightly preceded by Bering, were the first Europeans to reach the northwest coast of America and map it. Then St. Paul moved along the coast to the north. Fifteen sailors were found missing at 58o N. lat. when exploring the shore. After a lengthy but unsuccessful search, on July 27 Chirikov decided to return to Russia. On their way back, they discovered several islands from the Aleutian group. But every mile was hard to overcome. Like the crew of the St. Peter, Chirikovs men were short of water and food. The seamen staunchly12 overcame thirst, hunger and diseases, and finally on October 10, 1741 the St. Paul safely sailed into Avacha Bay.
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Thus, having emerged13 on the expanses of the World Ocean, Russian navigators, the predecessors14 of the sailors of Russias Pacific Navy, proved themselves to be courageous men capable not only of overcoming hardships effectively and daringly, but to conduct profound15 research in seas and oceans, and perform scientific feats16. This was recognized worldwide.
Notes:
1. a trapper
2. in charge of
3. the entire
4. having circumvented
5. to exhaust ,
6. scurvy
7. beset ,
8. to deplete
9. to disembark
10. to inter
11. staunchly
12. to emerge
13. a predecessor
14. profound ,
15. feat
Navigation Tools
Sand glass. At first, time on a ship was measured by a sand glass. But this was little use on a long voyage, as it could only measure short periods of time. However, a half-minute sand glass was often used with a log line (a rope with knots tied in it at regular intervals) to measure speed. The log line was paid out behind the ship and the speed was calculated by measuring the time between knots as the line went out. A ships speed is still given in knots today.
Compass. The earth is like a giant magnet. It has two magnetic poles, which lie near the North and South Poles. Therefore a needle of magnetized iron will always point to the magnetic poles if allowed to swing freely. A magnetic compass works according to this principle. Europeans did not develop a magnetic compass until about 1200. Compasses were used on board ship to tell sailors in which direction they were sailing. Early compasses were not very reliable. A compass needle could be affected by other iron objects nearby, such as a ships cannon, so voyages often went astray.
Quadrant. The quadrant was probably the first instrument used by navigators to measure the height of a star in order to calculate latitude. It was a quarter-circle of brass, with a plumb line hanging straight down from the point. One of the straight edges had tiny holes at each end. The navigator looked at the star through these holes. The plumb line then showed the height of the star in degrees, which were marked along the curved edge.
Astrolabe. The astrolabe was a device for measuring the height of the Sun at noon. This told the navigator his latitude. Like many other navigational instruments, it was first used by astronomers, people who study the stars. An astrolabe was a disc with degrees marked on a circular scale around the edge and a rotating arm that had a small eyehole at each end. The navigator turned the arm until the sunlight shone through the two eyeholes. The pointer at the end of the arm then indicated the height of the Sun in degrees above the horizon.
Cross-staff. The cross-staff was an instrument used for judging latitude by measuring the height of a star. The navigator lined the cross-staff up with the horizon, then moved the sliding cross-piece until the top was in line with the star. The long arm had a scale on it, which was marked with degrees, and the position of the cross-piece gave the height of the star in degrees above the horizon. The cross-staff was easier to use than an astrolabe, but was no use in daytime because the human eye cannot look directly at the sun. A more complicated version, called a back-staff or English quadrant, which was invented later, solved this problem by allowing the navigator to take a reading with his back to the Sun.
Nocturnal. The nocturnal was invented in about 1550 and was used to tell the time at night. Holding the handle at arms length, the navigator looked at the Polar Star through the hole in the centre of the instrument. He then moved the arm until it lined up with two other stars in the Pole Stars constellation. The arm pointed to the time on a disk in the middle of the device. The nocturnal was accurate to within about 10 minutes.
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Portolan chart. The earliest sailors maps were called Portolan charts and were drawn on goatskin. The charts showed places and landmarks along the coast and were covered with direction lines and decorative compasses, known as compass roses. These early maps were often inaccurate because their makers did not know enough geography. They were also uncertain how to show the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map. Portolan charts were used a great deal by Portuguese explorers in the 16th century.
Chronometer. The invention of the chronometer in the 18th century made sea navigation much easier. A chronometer is an accurate clock, which will keep nearly perfect time even when tossed about in a ship at sea for months. Most importantly, it allowed navigators to measure longitude accurately, because it could be set to keep Greenwich time.
Octant. The octant was invented in about 1730. It was an improved version of the quadrant, with two mirrors. By moving the arm, the navigator brought the reflection of the star together with the reflection of the horizon. The arm then indicated the height of the star in degrees on the scale at the bottom.
Sextant. The sextant replaced the quadrant in the late 18th century and is still used today to measure a stars altitude. It is fitted with double mirrors and a telescope for greater accuracy and, unlike the quadrant or octant, it can measure angles greater than 900. Early sextants had to be hand held, so ships navigators often used them on the shore, rather than on board ship.
Modern navigation. In the 20th century, methods of navigation have improved enormously. In 1908, the gyroscopic compass was invented. This always points to the true north and is not affected by magnetism. But the biggest breakthrough in navigational equipment was the invention of radio in around 1900. The chronometer, which was so important in the 18th century, is now unnecessary because time checks are broadcast by radio. Radio also enables ships to communicate with one another. Today, a ship anywhere in the world can also check its exact position by means of a signal from a satellite in orbit.
UNIT III
| THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM |
Reading Material
Text A
Task
a) Before we start reading lets recollect the composition of the solar system.
What does the solar system consist of?
What heavenly object is the most beautiful (mysterious, important)?
