| Active | Passive | |
| Simple | to apply | to be applied |
| Continuous | to be applying | |
| Perfect | to have applied | to have been applied |
| Perfect Continuous | to have been applying | |
Examples:
Im glad to work with these people. , ( ).
Im glad to be working on this case. , ( ).
We are glad to have caught the criminals. , ( ).
Im happy to have been working for this company for many years. , (- ).
He wants to be given more interesting cases. , ( , - ).
He is happy to have been given a more interesting case. , ( , - ).
, - . .
Example: Its necessary to pass a new law. (must) A new law must be passed.
1. Its impossible that the court imposed such punishment. (cant)
2. Its necessary to apply this law. (must)
3. They say that they have entered into a contract with this company. (claim)
4. My English is getting better. (tend)
5. Im sure that the contract was breached. (must)
6. I think investigators have been working on this case for half a year already. (must)
7. Its possible that he committed this crime. (could)
8. They say that they have filed an appeal. (claim)
9. Im almost sure that he is entitled to damages. (must)
10. I dont believe he committed this crime. (cant)
11. Unfortunately a lot of men who left their families dont pay alimony.
(tend)
12. We are sure that this very law was applied in the case. (must)
13. Its possible that this issue is regulated by employment law.
(could)
14. They say that they are working on this problem. (claim)
UNIT 3. THE SYSTEM OF LAW IN RUSSIA
TEXT
Vocabulary
1. to reflect social relations
2. a unit of the system of law
3. peculiarity
4. to make attempts
5. fundamental branches of law
6. specialised branches of law
7. composite (complex) branches of law
.
How are branches of law classified in Russia?
Which branches of law belong to the category of fundamental law? What do specialised branches deal with?
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How do composite branches differ from fundamental and specialised ones?
The system of law in the Russian Federation is presented by norms, institutions and branches of law which together make up a single unity. The system reflects social relations regulated by specific norms and institutions of law. For example, the problems of marriage and divorce, child custody and adoption are connected with the sphere of family relations and consequently regulated by the rules of family law.
Branches of law are supposed to be one of the basic units in the whole system of law. Each branch has its own peculiarities, which differentiate this very branch from the others, its subject and method and its own place in the system. For years Russian jurists have made attempts to classify branches of law. Nowadays there are different subdivisions that are used by contemporary Russian scholars. Thus as well as in most other countries law in Russia is divided into public and private, substantive and procedural, domestic and international. But there is one more classification which is based on certain characteristics of Russian law. Traditionally Russian lawyers single out fundamental, specialised and composite or complex branches of law.
Fundamental branches regulate the most general and important relations in different spheres of social life. This category involves branches of substantive law such as civil law, criminal law, administrative law, as well as procedural law including civil, criminal and administrative procedural law. Constitutional law does not belong to the group of fundamental branches. It is traditionally considered to have the leading position among other branches, as the norms of constitutional law serve the basis for the norms of other branches. Constitutional law in Russia concerns the structure of legislative, executive and judicial power and principles of their work; the political system of the country; its federative structure; forms of property; electoral system; legal status of citizens including their rights, duties and liberties. The main source of constitutional law is the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Specialised branches of law deal with special areas of social relations such as family relations, financial relations, labour relations, etc. These branches are rather independent and their norms are presented in special codes, for example the Family Code which is the primary source of family law; the Labour Code which is known to be the source of employment law, the Land Code which is the source of land law, etc.
Together with fundamental and specialised branches there are so-called composite branches. Usually these branches dont have their own codes. The relations arising in these spheres of law are usually regulated either by the norms of fundamental law i.e. administrative, civil or criminal law or by norms of specialised law for example financial law. This group includes such branches as business law, environmental law, maritime law, agricultural law, etc.
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