. E = mc 2 . , , s .
, . , , , .
, , . . (1711 1765 .).
V , , δ Q. d, dV.
. dU. , , δ L . ,
δ Q = dU + δ L, (2.7)
.. , , .
. , . .
1. δ Q = 0 , .. . . (2.7)
δ L = dU. (2.8)
, , , . .
2. δ L = 0 , dV = 0. ,
δ Q = dU, (2.9)
.. , , .
3. dU = 0
δ Q = δ L, (2.10)
.. .
, 1 ,
Δ q = du + δ l. (2.11)
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(2.7) (2.11) ,
Q = ∆ U + L; q = ∆ u + l, (2.12)
∆ U = U 2 U 1, ∆ u = u 2 u 1.
, . , , . , , . : . 1755 . , - .
, , , : .
:
ü , 1 , /(×);
ü ´, , 1 3 , /(3×);
ü μ , , /(×).
:
= μ /μ; ´= ρ. (2.13)
ρ .
, . , 1 . + ∞ ∞.
:
ü
p = δ q p/ dT, (2.14)
δ q p, , dT;
ü
v = δ qv / dT, (2.15)
δ qv, , dT.
δ q = du + pdv.
, ( (2.1))
Δ q = (∂ u /∂ T) vdT + [(∂ u /∂ v) T + p ] dv. (2.16)
(v =const) , , (2.15), ,
cv = (∂ u /∂ T) v. (2.17)
( 2.2),
cv = du / dT. (2.18)
( =const) (2.16) (2.14)
c p = (∂ u /∂ T) v + [(∂ u /∂ v) T + p ](dv / dT) p
,
. (2.19)
(1.4) pv = RT (1.3) ,
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c p = v + R. (2.20)
(2.20) .
v =const , , , = const . c p v .
, . . . q 12, , (t 1) (t 2) ( t 2 t 1).
,
, / , . (2.21)
( ) . , 4,187 /(×), 1 /(×). ( ) , , ,
. (2.21 )
. 2.2 q 12 . , ,
, (2.22)
t 1 t 2.
. 2.2. |
, , t 1, t 2. .
. , 0 t 2 t 1 (. 2.2)
. (2.23)
, (2.24)
- 0 t .
( , .. cv) t. . ( cv), ¢ m . , , . , (2.24) .
=const
( .. , .. , .. )
t, C | m , /(×) | |||||||
2 | N2 | 2 | 2 | S2 | H2O | |||
29,278 | 29,022 | 28,621 | 29,127 | 35,865 | 38,859 | 33,503 | 29,077 | |
29,542 | 29,052 | 28,939 | 29,181 | 38,117 | 40,659 | 33,746 | 29,156 | |
29,935 | 29,135 | 29,077 | 29,307 | 40,065 | 42,334 | 34,123 | 29,303 | |
30,404 | 29,290 | 29,127 | 29,521 | 41,760 | 43,883 | 34,579 | 29,525 | |
30,882 | 29,504 | 29,109 | 29,793 | 43,255 | 45,223 | 35,094 | 29,793 | |
31,338 | 29,768 | 29,253 | 30,103 | 44,579 | 46,396 | 35,634 | 30,099 | |
31,765 | 30,048 | 29,320 | 30,429 | 45,759 | 47,359 | 36,200 | 30,408 | |
32,155 | 30,346 | 29,412 | 30,756 | 46,819 | 48,238 | 36,794 | 30,727 | |
32,506 | 30,639 | 29,521 | 31,074 | 47,769 | 48,950 | 37,397 | 31,032 | |
32,829 | 30,928 | 29,650 | 31,380 | 48,624 | 49,620 | 38,013 | 31,325 | |
33,122 | 31,200 | 29,793 | 31,669 | 49,398 | 50,165 | 38,624 | 31,602 | |
33,390 | 31,459 | 29,948 | 31,941 | 50,106 | 50,667 | 39,231 | 31,866 | |
33,637 | 31,711 | 30,111 | 32,196 | 50,747 | 51,086 | 39,830 | 32,113 | |
33,867 | 31,945 | 30,291 | 32,431 | 51,329 | --- | 40,412 | 32,347 | |
34,081 | 32,167 | 30,471 | 32,657 | 51,865 | --- | 40,482 | 32,569 | |
34,286 | 32,376 | 30,651 | 32,862 | 52,355 | --- | 41,530 | 32,778 | |
34,479 | 32,369 | 30,836 | 33,055 | 52,807 | --- | 42,062 | 32,971 | |
34,663 | 32,753 | 31,016 | 33,235 | 53,226 | --- | 42,581 | 33,155 | |
34,839 | 32,921 | 31,196 | 33,407 | 53,611 | --- | 43,075 | 33,323 | |
35,010 | 33,084 | 31,376 | 33,566 | 53,967 | --- | 43,544 | 33,486 | |
35,174 | 33,235 | 31,552 | 33,712 | 54,298 | --- | 44,001 | 33,645 | |
35,333 | 33,381 | 31,727 | 33,855 | 54,603 | --- | 44,399 | 33,792 | |
35,488 | 33,520 | 31,895 | 33,984 | 54,888 | --- | 44,856 | 33,930 | |
35,638 | 33,645 | 32,062 | 34,110 | 55,152 | --- | 45,261 | 34,064 | |
35,789 | 33,683 | 32,226 | 34,227 | 55,399 | --- | 45,651 | 31,190 | |
35,932 | 33,880 | 32,389 | 34,340 | 55,624 | --- | 46,023 | 34,311 |
m 100 . , . , . y = f (x) 1 ( = 1) 2 ( = 2). () 1< < 2 . ( 2> 1), ( 2< 1); , 2 > 1 .
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U V, :
= U + V. (2.25)
, . , , ().
h = u + pv, (2.26)
(h = / ), , 1 , /.
, :
h = ψ1(p, v); h = ψ2(v, T); h = ψ3(p, T),
dh .
.
, , v . .
( ) .
, .
, , (2.26) (18) (1.4) ,
. (2.27)
vdp , (2.27),
. (2.28)
.
2.1. 1 300 . , , 20 ˚?
2.2. 1000 2000 ˚, , 0 2000 ˚ 1,19 /(×), 01000 ˚ 1,12 /(×).
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2.3. 2 100 2 100 . 0 200 ? 7,8 /3, 0,000013 -1, 0,46 /(×).
2.4. , 1 , ?