All of this basic background on language should ultimately demonstrate its uniquiness to human existence, and the universality of language acquisition, development, and usage. It should also be evident that human’s use of language has countless implications. Let us turn our attention to the importance of the relationship between language and culture. If in fact, culture affects the structure and content of a language, linguistic diversity could be explained in terms of cultural diversity.We find many examples of this in various cultures. Eskimos have many different words describing snow and ice while cultures in arid regions have numerous words describing sand. The number of colour terms a culture has correlates with its degree of technological specialisation. The same can be said for general terms for plants and animals when comparing the vocabulary of simpler societies with more complex ones. The reason for the increase in vocabulary items with the increase in social complexity is because as a society increases in population density, so does the number of specialized work tasks. If we were to only consider the core or nonspecialist vocabulary, all languages would have a core vocabulary of about the same size. The idea that the vocabulary of a language reflects the everyday distinctions important in the society makes sense. Most urban dwellers in our society may only be able to name between 40 and 80 plant species whereas the typical members of hunting and gathering societies could name 400 to 800 species. Another example of how culture influences language is with usage of the verb “to have.” Societies lacking this verb also lack the concept of private property. The addition of this concept may also bring the addition of “have”to the society’s language. (Ember and Ember 1996,)
Linguistic influences on culture:The Sapir-Whorf hypotheses
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that the differences in language reflect differences in mental processes. Antropologists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf illustrated this with an example that compared the Hopi language with English. In English there are categories in word formation that convey discreteness in time: past, present, future, and things occurring at a specific time on a liner scale. The Hopis do not have the same concept of time, seeing it more as a cycling ongoing process that cannot be segmented. The Hopi language does not have the construction of tenses that the English language has (Ember 1996,). This view of language’s influence on a culture states that the way in which a language is constructed becomes a cultural straitjacket. Proponents of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis are linguistic determinists: Language determines the way you think. Most linguists prefer a less extreme version of the hypothesis and adhere to linguistic relativism, which argues that each language corresponds to a different worldview. Language does not necessarily coerce thought but may encourage patterns of thought or the habitual way we view the world. Language interects with culture in more obvious ways.The way a language reflects the structure of society is evident in verbal taboos that may prohibit saying certain words – as is the case with certain New World Native groups that have a taboo against saying the name of a deceased person. Profanity is not a taboo in English because there are appropriate contexts for its use. Sometimes we really do want to curse someone. Language also helps maintain social structure. The social rules behind politeness show deferences in status. Even if there were no other clues, however, most people in England could recognise major differences in social class by different dialects.
The ability we have to recognise voice with just a minimal input shows that each person possesses his or her own idiolect, charecteristics of language at the individual level. A specific number of people (a subcultural or ethnic group) share common language characteristics of a language and comprise a dialect. In each culture you use different styles of language, depending on to whom you are speaking. On a formal occasions you are using the language’s standard style. If your social network (all the people with whom you normally interact) use a restricted code of speech (a familiar and casual style) then it will be harder for you to switch to a more elaborated code. To sum up, idiolects and dialects comprise a language. While style varies at an individual and group level, the standard is representative of the entire language.
I Vocabulary
- ultimately – в конечном счете, в конце концов
- implication – смысл, подтекст
- arid – засушливый, пустынный
- to correlate –находиться в связи, устанавливать соотношения (to, with)
- core – 1) сердцевина, ядро, 2) суть
- distinction – различие
- to lack – испытывать недостаток, нуждаться, не иметь
- mental process – мыслительный (ментальный) процесс
- discreteness – разрывность
- to coerce – 1) принуждать, 2) сообщить движение
- to prohibit – запрещать
- New World Native groups – американские индейцы
- deceased person – покойный, умерший человек
- profanity – богохульство
- acknowedgment – 1) признание, 2) подтверждени
- to comprise – включать, заключать в себе
- restricted code of speech – неофициальная речь
- elaborated code – официальная речь
- idiolect – индивидуальный словарный запас
- dialect – диалект
- Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – гипотеза Сапира-Уорфа, лежащая в основе теории лингвистической относительности
II Comprehension check
- What affects the structure and content of a languge?
- How can liguistic diversity be explained?
- What is the reason for the increase in vocabulary items?
- What does the vocabulary of a language reflect?
- What members of a society may be able to call much more species?
- What does the SapirWhorf hypothesis propose?
- What is the difference between the Hopi language and English?
- What is the opinion of the linguistic determinists about it?
- What version do most linguists prefer?
- How can we prove that a language reflects the structure of a society?
- How does language help maintain social structure?
- What people comprise a dialect?
- When do people use the language’s standard style?
- In what situations do people use a familiar and casual style?
- What is the difference between the standard and individual or group level of a language?
Text 3
Nonverbal communication
Languages are often preserved in their written forms, and in some cases the written form has contributed to the continuity of the culture. Due to geographic isolation, migration, conquests, and other factors, very different spoken dialects have developed all over China. People in different parts of China may be unable to understand the dialect of a person from a different province, but both can read the written language. This has united and provided continuity to a widespread and diverse population. People communicate in many different ways other than spoken language – for example, with the clothing they wear; the way they present or move their bodies; facial gestures, such as grimaces or smiles; and synthetic odors, such as aftershave, lotion, or perfume. Most societies develop distinct meaning or uses for various physical gestures. Giving someone “the finger” in one society may mean something quite the opposite in another. In some cultures, you may only shake hands or handle food with the right hand; in earlier generations, the left hand was regularly used in lieu of toilet paper. In some cultures, showing the soles of your feet or crossing your legs would be an insult. A loud belch, considered impolite in the presence of others in the United States, would be an appropriate expression of appreciation for a meal in other cultures. Many societies have informal, deeply rooted understanding of desirable ways to relate to other people. A high value is placed on group integration and conformity. A folkway is an approved form of behavior that is important but not usually accompanied by formal sanctions, for example, fines, if the practice is violated. If you use the wrong fork at a formal dinner, people will notice but there will be no overt punishment. If you drive too fast, this violation may lead to traffic fines – you have violated a more. Mores are norms that involve sanctions for violators. Public humiliation in a society where “saving face” is considered important can be devastating. In China, you should go out of your way to avoid embarrassing people – to help them save face. The loss of face is particularly devastating in front of large crowds of acquaintances. During the Chinise Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, singling out the individual for public humiliation sometimes led to the person committing suicide.
Creating culture
We have mentioned on several occasions the emergent qualities of human culture. We may speak in general terms about the features of a culture or we may compare cultural similarities in different societies. However, in living societies culture is a dynamic, evolving, feature of human life. The culture of a particular people may change because the invironment changes. Arid conditions may cause groups to migrate and adopt new agricultural practices.The many ice ages have almost certainly brought an end to some cultures and produced dramatic changes in others.
A particularly important source of cultural change is the ability humans have to react to the product of their own handiwork. We invent something, use it, think about it, and then create a new, more desired version. Consider how rapidly our culture has changed in the area of our travel: from folk table to the designs of Leonardo De Vinci. This escalation of technology occurs for many reasons including a strong societal emphasis on technical education and willingness to devote societal resourses. In sience and technology as in other areas, every goal attained becomes the stepping stone for the next possibility. Language is the crucial ingredient in this process of cultural development. Specialty languages are created by various academic disciplines to explain their latest insights in understanding the natural world. The various sciences also develop by creating new instruments to more precisely measure, and analyse some new facets of nature. We learn more by creating the space telescope or creating the technology for genetic surgery. In every instance the new techniques are accompanied by new concepts that link new developments in science. Karl Mannheim worked on the sociology of knowledge. Since then several social theorists have studied the social aspect of knowledge creation. Language exists in human social activity. Scientists are not “finding something that is out there.” They are creating a new way of understanding some particular aspect of existence. Whether in medicine or biology, well-organized groups create new knowledge. If you wish to become a socioligist, you will be systematically initiated into the language appropriate to the study of human society. Consider for a minute the unfolding of knowledge in sociology or any other discipline. For example, the textbook used in college classes in physics, biology, psychology, or sociology have dramatically changed since 1930 or 1970. Scientific research is only one example of organized interest groups that are rewarded for their new cultural creations. Other groups attempt new cultural creations, often for economic reasons. As the twenty-first century begins, many individuals are eagerly trying to locate new forms of business opportunity that can operate on the Internet. Others are involved in creating new fashions in art, clothing, music, or popular culture. Imagine how much money was made from their manufacture and sales. The latest new rock star is also culturally created. To ” break in” one needs some level of talent and perhaps a new sound or idea, but this alone is not enough. You also need economic backing to help you produce and market your new sound. Much money is invested before the new entertainer finds his or her work on the Top 20 charts.
