Социологии отведено особое место в системе научного знания. Эта наука позволяет человеку познать законы функционирования и развития общества. В настоящее время без знания закономерностей социальной жизни, без рекомендаций и прогнозов социологов не могут обойтись государственные и общественные деятели, политики и бизнесмены, экономисты и юристы, социальные работники и психологи, педагоги и работники культуры – все, кто по роду своей профессиональной деятельности имеет дело с людьми и соц. группами, кто тем или иным образом творит общественные отношения. Соц. творчество приносит позитивный результат только тогда, когда оно происходит на основе учета объективных тенденции общественной жизни, устанавливаемых и изучаемых социологией. Поэтому овладение основами социол. науки является обязательным для будущих специалистов всех направлений профессиональной деятельности и в целом для любого человека как субъекта и объекта соц. взаимодействий.
Соц.-политическое образование представляет один из способов современной социализации личности и формирования ее общей культуры, приобщения к человеческим ценностям. Главной его функцией выступает формирование соц. мышления, понимания соц. проблем, источников их возникновения и возможных путей разрешения. Курс социологии призван развернуть перед обучающимися целостную, многоуровневую картину соц. жизни, показать сложные взаимосвязи общества и личности, дать студентам необходимый любому образованному гражданину минимум знаний о соц.-политических реалиях, нормах соц. поведения, соц.-политических ценностях.
Будущим специалистам необходимо не только получить определенный объем информации и знаний, но и приобрести умения и навыки быстро ориентироваться в стремительно меняющемся соц. мире, оперативно адаптироваться к нему, самостоятельно развивать свои способности, активно и творчески решать возникающие жизненные проблемы.
III Communicative practice
1. There isn’t a single theory about society. There are many different schools and approaches. Do you think it’s a weak point of sociology?
2. Whose vision of society is closer to you? Why?
3. Comment on Comte’s idea that social science shouldn’t study the reasons of social events. Do you agree with him?
4. Nowadays there are 2 contradictive conclusions concerning Marx’s approach:
b) his study is positive, as it is based on the idea of justice;
c) his study is negative, as it led to unhuman totalitarian societies.
What is your opinion?
5. Is Marxism old-fashioned?
IV Topics for reports
Choose the sociologist whose ideas are closer to you and tell us about him
1. Max Weber – one of the most important German social theorists.
2. John Dewey and George Herbert Mead in the development of American sociology.
3. W.I. Thomas (1863-1947) and Florian Zwaniecki
4. Structural Functionalism of Tlacott Parsons (1902-1979)
5. Sir Karl Popper and his “The open society and its enemies”
6. Sociology in Russia
1) M.M. Kovalevsky
2) P.A. Sorokin
7. Any other sociologists.
Unit III
Society and culture
Text 1
Society is a group of people occupying a particular territory where the inhabitants are subject to a common system. Culture is a set of socially learned knowledge and values, including the production of material objects and the creation of new ideas. This means culture exists both as ideas in people’s mind and as material artifacts.
Cultural knowledge includes the rules, ideas, concepts and values that people share. By values we mean preferences and standards of worth that the society considers good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Every culture has experiences and symbols that people try to sustain and keep alive, these are the things people worship. Communal societies place a strong value on responsibility and duty, especially within the family. More independent societies value individuals who “go against the grain”. You cannot live in a society without being aware of these values. You may react against them, rejecting some, but they are still a part of your life space. Values are preserved through patriotic and religious feelings, customs, legends, and even laws. Culture does not exist independently of a society. Every society has a culture. Societies and cultures are continually evolving.
Society and culture are independent concepts used to describe human events usually changing over time. It is not a simple theoretical task in sociology to conceptualize the several possible components of social and cultural change. In our modern era, attention is usually focused on technology in the economic arena of society as the major engine of change. Technology develops in different institutional spheres of a society and always involves relevant social behavior. The technological sphere is neither autonomous nor self-directed. Different institutional spheres may react to technological changes. In sum, humans create technology, work with it and modify it.
I Vocabulary
- to occupy – занимать
- inhabitant – житель, обитатель
- culture – культура
- to include – включать в себя, содержать
- creation – создание, формирование
- to exist – существовать
- artifact – артефакт
- to involve – привлекать, вовлекать
- relevant – релевантный, значимый, существенный
II Comprehension check
- What is society?
- What is culture?
- What does cultural knowledge include?
- What do we mean by values?
- What does every culture have?
- What do communal societies value?
- What do more independent societies value?
- What are values preserved through?
- How do societies and cultures interact?
- What do such concepts as society and culture describe?
- What is the major engine of change in modern era?
- Who creates technology?
Text 2
Explaining culture: Nature or Nurture?
There has been a continual debate in the social sciences concerning the relative importance of biology in explaining human social and cultural changes. Biological reductionism refers to the tendency to explain social phenomena in terms of biological causes, such as physiology and genetics. Cultural determinism is the opposite, insisting that culture explains everything. Some scholars in the past have tried to explain various types of criminal behavior by differences in the structure of chromosomes or even the shape of the head or body type. There have been recent efforts to explain same-sex preference in terms of chromosome differences. Prominent psychologist Arthur Jensen of the University of California published the article “How far can we boost intelligence and IQ?” which occupied an entire issue of the Harvard Educational Review. He argued that genetic differences explained why blacks did more poorly than whites in urban education settings. According to Jensen, greater efforts at improving certain aspects of education cannot benefit people who are genetically programmed for the acquisition of a different, more practical type of knowledge. Stephen Gould, a Harvard evolutionary biologist, and a long list of sociologists have demonstrated the flaws in Arthur Jensen’s arguments. Research that claims genetic explanations for certain behaviors attracts much media attention, while the rebuttals are frequently less publicized. If behavior can be explained biologically, present social arrangements are more difficult to challenge.
Social biology
Social biology is a term coined by Professor Edward O. Wilson at Harvard in 1975. Advocates of this approach think that genetic makeup transmitted through biology explains aspects of human society and culture. We can study the social behavior of bees, ants, or primates and learn important things about human culture.
There is no doubt that much about each of us is determined by the chromosomes we inherited at birth from each of our parents. From this union we became male or female and inherited a range of physical traits, including our mental aptitude. However, two major errors occur in ascribing primary importance to our biological inheritance.
First, our biological inheritance does not determine how a particular behavior is expressed and understood culturally. In different cultures, an individual with a high energy level might be considered a shaman, or a rambunctious person “too full of himself”, or a child requiring Ritalin to control hyperactivity (ADHD – Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder). Expressions of our biology always appear in a cultural context and this cultural context is continually evolving.
Second, individual biological differences do not explain group differences. Pure gene pools no longer exist as a possible way of explaining group differences. Group differences that we observe come from humans with genetically diverse backgrounds in distinct cultural situations. Cultures attach significance to phenotypes. A phenotype is an observable or detectable physical characteristic of a person. Cultures make distinctions between subtle gradations of skin pigment (e.g., between the extremely light skin pigment of Scandinavians and the more “olive” skin pigment of some Spanish, Italian, and Greek people). In the European community these differences may appear quite obvious and important, though a dark-skinned person of the Dravidian language group of Southern India might view them all as “white” people. No biological differences cause particular social or cultural arrangements or behaviors. As in the above example, some reactions are explainable only by the cultural differences between the two observers, not the underlying biological differences
I Vocabulary
1. to concern – касаться, описывать
2. phenomena – (мн.ч.) события, явления
3. rebuttals – опровержения
4. physical traits – физические черты
5. pure gene pool – чистый генофонд
6. to attach – придавать
7. significance – важность, значимость
8. nurture – воспитание, обучение
9. a flaw – слабое место в аргументации
II Comprehension check
1. How does biological reductionism explain social phenomena?
2. What does cultural determinism insist on?
3. How did some scholars in the past explain various type of criminal behaviour?
4. What did prominent psychologist Arthur Jenser argue?
5. Whom was the term “social biology” coined by?
6. What do advocates of this approach think?
7. What major errors occur in ascribing primary importance to our biological inheritance?
8. What do group differences come from?
9. What is a phenotype?
10. Can all reactions be explained by biological differences?
Text 3
Culture Lag
The many elements of any given culture are interrelated. However, some elements may change at a faster rate than others. Culture lag is the concept created by the American sociologist. William F. Ogburn, to explain what happens when new features of a culture appear and create new social conditions or contradictions with other values.
Technological and material culture frequently change much more rapidly than other features of a culture. Stress and cultural change may be the result.
Henry Tishler provides a more current example of culture lag. The Internet and the World Wide Web provide many educational opportunities for students, but the integration of the technology into the classroom has been a slow process. Traditional school values have left education virtually unchanged over the past century. These values support the role of a teacher as the main guide in the student’s path to learning. With the introduction of computer technology, the teacher’s role is being challenged. If the merging of the World Wide Web and the classroom is to be a success, the role of the teacher will have to evolve into a more collaborative one. Internet technology is currently producing many other changes. Buying books, CDs, or plane tickets is simple, efficient, and usually at lower cost over the Internet. Many Internet sales companies are growing rapidly. Their impact on other parts of the society is only partly understood. For example, traditional bookstores will find it hard to compete. Usually Internet purchases do not involve a local sales tax.
Are there cultural universals? Are there common features found in diverse cultures? When similar behaviour occurs in almost all societies, it is considered a cultural universal. For example, all human cultures have a language, property rights, religious rituals, marriage and a family system. Taboo against sexual relations with close relatives is another cultural universal. George Murdock, in “The Common Denominators of Cultures” (1945) included other universals: dancing, joking, gift giving, rules of hygiene, art and bodily adornment. In one sense the concept of cultural universals is useless. In spite of the fact that every culture has a marriage and human ritual we know nothing about the diversity of ways these are done in any particular culture.
I Vocabulary
1. to interrelate – находиться во взаимосвязи
2. culture lag – культурный лаг, разрыв между техническим развитием общества и его моральными и правовыми институтами
3. efficient – действенный, эффективный
4. rapidly – быстро, резко
5. purchase – покупка
6. feature – черта, характерная особенность
7. property – имущество, собственность
8. bodily adornment – украшение тела
9. burial ritual – обряд похорон
10. diversity – разнородность, многообразие
II Comprehension check
- What does the concept “Culture lag” explain?
- What features of a culture change more rapidly?
- What may be the result?
- What example of culture lag does Henry Jischler provide?
- What is considered a cultural universal?
- What do all human cultures have?
- In what sense is the concept of cultural universals useless?
