.
. 147 ( 1). , (, Al, Pb, Zn .) TK (0,1420 ), , , ( 2), . . . , , 1911 . . - . . ( , .) - . , 100 .
, 0,003 . , , , . .
99. .
, U. " d t d q=I d t. d q , , (84.6),
(99.1)
R, , (98.1),
(99.2)
(99.1) (99.2) ,
(99.3)
, , , , . : - (×) - (×). 1 × 1 1 ; 1 ×=3600 B×c=3,6×103 ; 1 ×=103 ×= 3,6×106 .
, , ,
(99.4)
, (99.4), (99.1) (99.2),
(99.5)
(99.5) , . . X. .*
* . X. (18041865) .
d V= d S d l ( ), , d t
, , .
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(99.6)
(j=g) r= 1 /g,
(99.7)
(99.6) (99.7) , .
, 1873 . . . (18471923) . , ( . . (17611834)), , . .
100.
(. (98.1)) , . . , ... ( ). , ... 1 2 j 1 j 2.
, 12, 12 ( ), , , . , Q 0 1 2, (97.4),
(100.1)
... I, . , , . ... ( 12), > 0. ... , < 0. t (. (99.5))
(100.2)
(100.1) (100.2)
(100.3)
(100.4)
(100.3) (100.4) , .
( =0), (100.4) (98.1):
( (. 97)). , 1 2 , j 1= j 2; (100.4) :
- ..., , R . R=r+R 1, r , R 1 .
, , (I = 0), (100.4) , =j 1 j 2, . . ..., , . , ... , .
101.
(. (100.3)) . , ( , . .), . . *
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*. (18241887) .
, , . , , , , , .
: , , :
, . 148 :
. , . .
. , (. 149). , , . , , , . , , . (100.3), :
,
(101.1)
(101.1) : , , Ii Ri ..., :
(101.2)
:
1. ; : , , .
2. ; IR , , , , ..., , , .
3. , ( ... ); , , , .
(. 150) . * R 1, R 2, R 3 R 4 . ... r, D RG. , , ,
(101.3)
A, ACDA CBDC, , :
(101.4)
* . (18021875) .
..., , , . R 2, R 3 R 4, , (IG = 0). (101.3)
(101.5)
(101.4)
(101.6)
(101.5) (101.6) ,
(101.7)
, (IG = 0) R 1 ... , .
(. 151), R 3 R 4 () , R 3 /R 4 l 3/ l 4. , (101.7),
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(101.8)
l 3 l 4 , a R 2 . (101.8) R 1.
12.1. 1 2 ; 1 . , , . 8,9 /3. [74 /]
12.2. , , , t 1=20C t 2=1200. 3,65×103 1. [ 5 ]
12.3. 0,3 2 0,3 . , . 17 ×. [2,72×1021 ]
12.4. 10 I 0=3 I =0 30 . . [900 ].
12.5. 5 /2. , 26 ×. [66 /(3×)]
12.6. r , I 1=5 P 1=10 , I 2=8 P 2=12 . [0,17 ]
12.7. ... E 1=1,8 , E 2=1,4 E 3=1,1 . r 1=0,4 , r 2=0,6 . , I 1=1,13 A. [0,2 ]
13 ,
102.
, . . , . , . (18631906) X. , , .
* (1901), (u, l, u) . , , (3,5×106 ), , , . , , , . 1897 . . (18561940) .
*. (18451915) .
( ). : , , , , . ; , , . (1913) . . (18791944) . . (18801947). 1916 . . (18811948) . (18281887). , , . . . , , , . , , .
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: ( ) , , , . , , , , , , .
, . , , . , - (. (44.3)),
T =300 1,1×105 /. , , .
, . . . á v ñ (96.1) : j = e á v ñ. , 107 /2, , n = 8×10283 á v ñ 7,8×104 /. , á v ñ<<á u ñ, . . , , . á v ñ + á u ñ á u ñ.
, . , (c =3×108/). t = l / c (l ) . .
103.
1. . E =const. Co F = eE a=F/m=eE/m. , ,
á t ñ .
, , , , . ,
(103.1)
, á t ñ á l ñ , á u ñ + á v ñ (á u ñ ). 102 , á v ñ<<á u ñ,
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á t ñ (103.1),
, (96.1),
, , . . (. (98.4)). j E ,
(103.2)
, .
2. .
(103.3)
, . . .
á z ñ :
(103.4)
n , á z ñ
(103.5)
. (103.3) (103.4) (103.5), , ,
(103.6)
w (. 99). w E 2 (103.2) g; , (103.6) (. (99.7)).
3. . , . , , , , , () , . . .
1853 . , (l) (g) :
b , .
b: b =3 (k/e) 2, k . . , , . , , , b =2 (k/e) 2, .
, , . . .
. (103.2) , , . . , g, ( (103.2) á l ñ , á u ñ~ ). , R ~ T (. 98).