1. Adelson PD, Bratton SL, Carney NA, et al. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 2003;4.
2. Barry KG, Berman AR. Mannitol infusion. Part III. The acute effect of the intravenous infusion of mannitol on blood and plasma volume. N. Engl. J. Med. 1961; 264:1085 – 1088.
3. Battison C, Andrwes PJ, Graham C, et al. Randomized, controlled trial of the effect of a 20% mannitol solution and a 7,5% saline/6% dextran solution on increased intracranial pressure after brain injury. Crit. Care Med. 2005;33:196-202.
4. Becker DP, Vires JK. The alleviation of increased intracranial pressure by the chronic administration of osmotic agents. In: Intracranial Pressure M. Brock and H Dietz (eds), Springer: Berlin) 1972:309-315.
5. Berger S, Schurer L, Hartl R, et al. Reduction of post-traumatic intracranial hypertension by hypertonic/hypertonic saline/dextran and hypertonic mannitol. Neurosurgery. 1999;37:98-107.
6. Brown FD, Johns L, Jaffar, et al. Detailed monitoring of the effects of mannitol following experimental head injury. J Neurosurg 1979;50:423-432.
7. Bullock R, Teasdale GM. Head injuries. In: ABC of Major Trauma. Skiner, O’Driscoll, and Erlam (eds), BMJ Medical Publisher: London, 1991.
8. Cruz J, Minoja G, Okuchi K. Improving clinical outcomes from acute subdural hematomas with the emergency preoperative administration of high doses of mannitol: a randomized trial. Neurosurgery 2001;49:864-871.
9. Cruz J, Minoja G, Okuchi K. Major clinical and physiological benefits of early high doses of mannitol for intraparenchymal temporal lode hemorrhages with abnormal papillary widening: a randomized trial. J. Neurosurgery 2002;51:628-637.
10. Cruz J, Minoja G, Okuchi K, et al. Succeful use of new high-dose mannitol treatment in patients with Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 3 and bilateral abnormal papillary widening: a randomized trial. J. Neurosurg. 2004;100:376-383.
11. Cserr HF, De Pasquale M, Patlak CS. Regulation of brain water and electrolytes during acute hyperosmolarity in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 1987;253:F522-529.
12. Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant C, Marshall LM, Walker MD, and the Comprehesive Central Nervous System Trauma Centers. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J. Neurosurg. 1988; 69:15 – 23.
13. Feig PU, McCurdy DK. The hypertonic state. N. Engl. J. Med. 1977;297:1449.
14. Gemma M, Cozzi S, Tommasino C, et al. 7,5% hypertonic saline versus 20% mannitol during elective supratentorial procedures. J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol. 1997;9:329 – 334.
15. Hartl R, Ghajar J, Hochleuthner H, et al. Hypertonic/hyperoncotic saline reliably reduces ICP in severely head injured patients with intracranial hypertension. Acta Neurochir. Suppl. (Wien) 1077;70;126 – 129.
16. Härtl R, Medary M, Ruge M, et al. Hypertonic/hypertonic saline attenuates microcirculatory disturbances after traumatic brain injury. J. Trauma 1977;42:S41-S47.
17. Härtl R, Schürer L, Goetz C, et al. The effect of hypertonic fluid resuscitation on brain edema in rabbits subjected to brain injury and hemorrhagic shock. Shock 1995;3:274 – 279.
18. Horn P, Munch E, Vajkoczy P, et al. Hypertonic saline solution for control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with exhausted response to mannitol and barbiturates. Neurol. Res. 1999;21:758 – 764.
19. James HE. Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic manitol. Acta Neurochir. 1980;51:161 – 172.
20. Jennett B, Teasdale GM. Management of Head Injuries. FA Davis: Philadelphia, 1982.
21. Kassel NE, Baumann KW, Hitchon PW, et al. The effect of high dose mannitol on cerebral blood flow in dogs with normal intracranial pressure. Stroke 1982;13:59 – 61.
22. Kempski O, Obert C, Mainka T, et al. The effect of high dose mannitol on cerebral blood flow in dogs with normal intracranial pressure. Stroke 1982;13:59 – 61.
23. Khanna S, DavisD, Peterson B, et al. Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Crit. Care Med. 2000;28:1144 – 1151.
24. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Norenberg MD. Rapid correction of hyponatremia causes demyelinisation: relation to central pontine myelinolisis. Science 1981;211:1068 – 1070.
25. Kreimeier U, Bruckner UB, Messmer K. Improvement of nutritional blood flow using hypertonic-hyperoncotic solutions for primary treatment of hemorrhagic hypotension. Eur. Surg Res. 1988;20:277 – 279.
26. Loughead MG. Brain resuscitation and protection. Med. J. Aust. 1988; 148:458 – 466.
27. Marshall LF, Smith RW, Moore EE, et al. Mannitol dose requirements in brain injured patients. J. Neurosurg. 1978;48:169-172.
28. Mattox KL, Maningas PA, Moore EE, et al. Prehospital hypertonic saline/dextran infusion post-traumatic hypotension. The U.S.A. Multicenter Trial. Ann. Surg. 1991;213:482 – 491.
29. Mazzoni MC, Borgstrom P, Intaglietta M, et al. Capillary narrowing in hemorrhagic shock is rectified by hyperosmotic saline-dextran reinfusion. Circ. Shock 1990;31:407 – 418.
30. McGraw CP, Howard G. The effect of mannitol on increased intracranial pressure. Neurosurgery 1983;13:269-271.
31. Mendelow AD, Teasdale GM, Russell T, et al. Effect of manitol on cerebral perfusion pressure in human head injury. J. Neurosurg. 1985;63:43 – 48.
32. Miller JD, Leach PJ. Assessing the effects of mannitol and steroid therapy on intracranial volume/pressure relationships. J. Neurosurg. 1975;42:274 – 281.
33. Muizelaar JP, Lutz HA, Becker DP. Effect of mannitol on ICP and CBF and correlation with pressure autoregulation in severely head injured patients. J. Neurosurg. 1984;61:700 – 706.
34. Muizelaar JP, Vanderpoel HG, LiZ, et al. Pial arteriolar diameter and CO2 reacivity during prolonged hyperventilation in the rabbit. J. Neurosurg. 1988;69:923 – 927.
35. Muizelaar JP, Wei EP, Kontos HA, et al. Mannitol causes compensatory vasodilatation to blood viscosity changes. J. Neurosurg. 1983;59:822 – 828.
36. Munar F, Ferrer AM, de Nadal M, et al. Cerebral hemodynamic effects of 7,2% hypertonic saline in patients with head injury and raised intracranial pressure. J. Neurotrauma 2000;17:41-51.
37. Nath F, Galbraith S. The effect of mannitol on cerebral white matter water content. J. Neurosurg. 1986;65:41 – 43.
38. Peterson B, Khanna S, Fisher B, Et al. Prolonged hypernatremia controls elevated intracranial pressure in head-injured pediatric patients. Crit. Care Med. 2000;28:1136 – 1143.
39. Pough DS, Whitley JM, Taylor CL, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow following resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock with hypertonic saline. Influence of a subdural mass. Anesthesiology 1991;75:319 – 327.
40. Qureshi AI, Suarez JI, Bhardwaj A, et al. Use of hypertonic (3%) saline/acetate infusion in the treatment of cerebral edema: effect on intracranial pressure and lateral displacement of the brain. Crit. Care Med. 1998;26:440 – 446.
41. Qureshi AI, Suarez JI, Castro A, et al. Use of hypertonic saline/acetate infusion in treatment of cerebral edema in patients with head trauma: experience at a single center. J. Trauma 1999;47:659 – 665.
42. Roberts I, Schierhout G, Wakai A. Mannitol for acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Syst. Rev. 2003; 2:CD001049.
43. Rocha e Silva M, Velasco IT, Nogueira da Silva RI, et al. Hyperosmotic sodium salts reverse severe hemorrhagic shock: other solutes do not. Am. J. Physiol. 1987;253:H751 – H762.
44. Rosner MJ, Coley I. Cerebral perfusion pressure: a hemodynamic mechanism of mannitol and thepre-mannitol hemogram. Neurosurgery 1987;21:147 – 156.
45. Schatzmann C, Heissler HE, Konig K, Klinge-Xhemajili P, et al. Treatment of elevated intracranial pressure by infusions of 10% saline in severely head injured patients. Acta Neurochir. Suppl. (Wien) 1998;71:31 – 33.
46. Scherihout G, Roberts I. Manitol for acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2000;2:CD001208.
47. Schmoker JD, Zhuang J, Shackford SR. Hypertonic fluid resuscitation improves cerebral oxygen delivery and reduces intracranial pressure after hemorrhagic shock. J. Trauma 1991;31:1607 – 1613.
48. Schrot RJ, Muizelaar JP. Mannitol in acute traumatic brain injury. Lancet 2002;359:1633 – 1634.
49. Schwartz ML, Tator CH, Rowed DW, University of Toronto Head Injury Treatment Study. A prospective randomized comparison of pentobarbital and mannitol. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 1984;11:434 – 440.
50. Schwarz S, Schwab S, Bertram M, et al. Efects of hypertonic saline hydroxyethil starch solution and mannitol in patients with increased intracranial pressure after stroke. Stroke 1998;29:1550 – 1555.
51. Shackford SR, Bourguignon PR, Wald SL, et al. Hypertonic saline resuscitation of patients with head injury: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. J. Trauma 1998;44:50 – 58.
52. Shakford SR, Schmoker JD, Zhuang J. The effect of hypertonic resuscitation on pial arteriolar tone after brain injury and shock. J. Trauma 194;37:899 – 908.
53. Shackford SR, Zhuang J, Schmoker J. Intravenous fluid tonicity: effect on intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow, and cerebral oxygen delivery in focal brain injury. J. Neurosurg 1992;76:91 – 98.
54. Simma B, Burger R, Falk M et al. A prospective, randomized, and controlled study of fluid management in children width severe head injury: lactated Ringer’s solution versus hypertonic saline. Crit. Care Med. 1998;26:1265 – 1270.
55. Suarez JI, Qureshi AI, Bhardwaj A, et al. Treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension with 23?4% saline. Crit. Care Med. 1998;26:1118 – 1122.
56. Suarez JI, Qureshi AI, Parekh PD, et al. Administration of hypertonic (3%) sodium chloride/acetate in hyponatremic patients with symptomatic vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol. 1999;11:178 – 184.
57. Takagi H, Saito T, Kitahara T, et al. The mechanism of the ICP reducing effect of mannitol. In: Intracranial Pressure V.S. Ischii, H. Nagai, and N. Brock (eds), Springer: Berlin, 1983:729 – 733.
58. Vassar MJ, Perry CA, Gannaway WL, et al. 7,% sodium chloride/dextrane for resuscitation of trauma patients undergoing helicopter transport. Arch. Surg. 1991;126:1065 – 1072.
59. Wade CE, Grady J, Kramer GC, et al. Individual patient cohort analysis of the efficacy of hypotension. J. Trauma 1997;42:S61 – S65.
60. Zornow MH. Hypertonic saline as a safe and efficacious treatment of intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg. Anesthesiol. 1996;8:175 – 177.
61. Roberts I, Smith R, Evans S. Doubts over head injury studies. BMJ 2007;334:392 – 394.