There are a number of institutions associated with the common law system not usually found in civil law systems. Principal among these is the jury. The jury is a group of citizens, traditionally 12 in number, summoned at random to determine the facts in a lawsuit. When a trial by jury is held, the judge will instruct the jury on the law, but it remains for the jury to decide the facts. This means that ordinary citizens will decide which party will prevail in a civil case, and whether, in a criminal case, the accused is guilty or innocent of the charge against him or her.
The institution of the jury has had an important shaping effect on the common law. Because jurors are brought in on a temporary basis to resolve factual issues, common law trials are usually concentrated events, sometimes only a matter of days (although, occasionally, possibly weeks or months in duration). Emphasis is on the oral testimony of witnesses, although documents are also presented as evidence. Lawyers have responsibility for preparing the case; the trial judge performs no investigation of the case prior to trial. Lawyers, acting as adversaries, take the lead in questioning the witnesses at trial, while the judge acts essentially as a referee. Testimony is recorded by a court reporter or electronically.
The trial court, which is the court of first instance in the American system, is where the factual record of the case is made. Generally speaking, appeals courts confine their review of the lower court record to errors of law, not of fact. No new evidence is received on appeal.
All this stands in marked contrast to what is usually found in civil law systems, where jury trials are for the most part unknown. In a given case, instead of a single continuous trial, a series of court hearings may be held over an extended period. Documents play a more important role than witness testimony. The judge actively investigates the case and also conducts the questioning of the witnesses. Appeals may be taken both on the facts and the law.
UNIT 10
' CONVERSATION
— Wonderful! It’s Friday!
— Yes. Have a nice weekend!
— Same to you!
— Ugh! Work again! I hate Mondays!
— Me too! Did you have a nice weekend?
— Yes. It was wonderful.
± FOCUS ON GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE
| PARTICIPLE I | ПРИЧАСТИЕ I |
V + ing
Coming
| Active | Passive | |
| Non-perfect | leaving | being left |
| Perfect | having left | having been left |
! Неперфектные (non - perfect) формы выражают одновременность с действием глагола-сказуемого.
! Обратите внимание на способы перевода причастия.
| 1. The man leaving the house is Mr Brown. | 1. Человек, выходящий из дома, мистер Браун. |
| 2. The man leaving the house was Mr Brown. | 2. Человеком, выходившим из дома, был мистер Браун. |
| 3. Leaving Jim alone, I asked him to go on with his work. | 3. Оставляя Джима одного, я просил его продолжать работу. |
| 4. He came in nodding. Not knowing him, I didn't nod. | 4. Он вошел, кивнув. Не зная его, я не кивнул в ответ. |
| 5. Being left at home, he went on with his work. | 5. Будучи оставленным дома, он продолжал заниматься своей работой. (Поскольку его оставили дома, он...) |
! Перфектные (perfect) формы выражают предшествование действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.
| 1. Having lost his suit-case, he couldn't change his clothes. | 1. Потеряв свой чемодан, он не мог переодеться. |
| 2. Having been lost, the boy turned to the police officer. | 2. Так как мальчик заблудился, он обратился к полицейскому. |
| PARTICIPLE II | ПРИЧАСТИЕ II |
V + ed
Asked
! Формы причастия II неправильных глаголов см. в Grammar Supplement.
1. The problems discussed at the Conference are very important. Проблемы, обсуждаемые на конференции, очень важны.
2. The problems discussed at the Conference were very important. Проблемы, обсуждавшиеся на конференции, (были) очень важны.
! Participle II образует особый оборот с глаголами have и get, который употребляется для выражения действия, совершаемого не самим, а каким-то другим лицом.
| I had my hair cut. | I cut my hair. |
| Я постриг волосы (в парикмахерской). | Я постриг волосы (сам). |
! В сочетании с союзами when, while, if причастия I и II используются как обстоятельства.
PI When crossing the street, he was very careful.
Переходя улицу, он был очень осторожен. Или:
Когда он переходил улицу, он был очень осторожен.
PII If invited, he always comes.
Если его приглашают, он всегда приходит.
m 1. Измените предложения, используя причастие I.
Example: As he was busy, he couldn't go with us. – Being busy, he couldn't go with us.
Будучи занятым, он не мог пойти с нами.
1. When he was making the round of the store, he bumped into a man wanted by the police. 2. As he was afraid of complications, he stayed in bed. 3. The officer who stood before him asked for his papers. 4. You must take the bus that goes to the station. 5. He comes by the flight which arrives from London.
m 2. Измените предложения, используя причастие II.
Example: The things which are bought at Adams' are always of high quality.
The things bought at Adams' are always of high quality.
Полученные предложения переведите.
1. The fruit which is sold at this store is always fresh. 2. Clothes which are made to order (на заказ) always fit better. 3. The pills that the doctor prescribed helped him greatly. 4. Peter took the bus which was recommended to him by a man at the bus stop. 5. The food which is served at the restaurant is always wonderful.
m 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия.
Example: Being invited to the party, he jumped at the invitation.
Будучи приглашенным на вечеринку, он с радостью принял приглашение. Когда его пригласили на вечеринку, он с радостью согласился.
1. Having caught a cold, he could not eat ice-cream. 2. Being ill, he could not take part in the conference. 3. Making a round of the department store, he noticed that somebody followed him. 4. Jane was shocked by seeing a man who was pointing a gun at her. 5. Having worked as a legal adviser for 20 yours, he was considered (считался) to be an expert.
| THE INDEPENDENT PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION | НЕЗАВИСИМЫЙ ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ |
Независимый причастный оборот – это сочетание существительного или местоимения в именительном падеже с причастием (в любой форме), в котором существительное / местоимение является подлежащим по отношению к причастию, а не подлежащим всего предложения.
Он всегда отделяется запятой.
В русском языке нет аналогичной конструкции.
Независимый причастный оборот переводится:
а) придаточным обстоятельственным предложением (времени, причины или условия);
б) простым предложением в составе сложносочиненного предложения с союзом причем, а, и или путем бессоюзного соединения.
The door being locked, the police had to force it open.
Так как дверь была заперта, то полиции пришлось ее выбить.
Дверь была заперта, и полиции пришлось ее выбить.
Независимый причастный оборот может начинаться с THERE. В этом случае он, обычно, переводится придаточным обстоятельственным предложением.
There being no witnesses to the crime, the police concentrated on the study of the material evidence.
Так как свидетелей преступления не было, полиция сосредоточила усилия на изучении материальных улик.
m 1. Переведите на русский язык.
1) Some new detection methods having been used, the investigation started to advance rapidly. 2) They are discussing a possibility of filing a complaint, special attention being paid to the substantiation of the facts. 3) Nobody being able to add more information, the meeting was closed. 4) All the versions having been discussed, they were divided into groups and started working. 5) Coming to London, he immediately went to Scotland Yard.
& READING
TEXT A
Выучите слова.
| to concern | касаться | alien | иностранец | |
| controversy | спор, противоречие | security | безопасность | |
| private | частный | to attain | достигать | |
| significance | важность | to acquiesce | соглашаться (неохотно) | |
| consistent | последовательный | |||
| to adhere | придерживаться |
Прочитайте текст и будьте готовы ответить на вопросы.
Текст переведите.
1) What does international law consist of?
2) What is the difference between public and private international law?
3) What are the primary sources of international law?
4) What is customary / conventional law?
5) Does international law protect the rights of individuals?
6) What role do international organizations play in the relationships between nations?
