Items for discussion:
1. Metaphor, metonymy, irony
2. Zeugma and pun
3. Epithet and oxymoron
4. Antonomasia
5. Simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole
There are different types of lexical meaning. They are^
a) The primary meaning is the meaning which is registered in the language as an easily recognized sign for a notion or object
b) contextual meaning is an additional lexical meaning which is realized through a context.
c) derivative meaning is the meaning which can be registered as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary meaning by means of metaphore or metonymy.
d) logical meaning is the precise meaning of a feature, idea or phenomena.
e) emotive meaning has reference to the feeling and emotions of the speaker to the subject
f) nominal meaning expresses concepce indicating a particular object our of the concepce
The principle of interaction of different types of lexical meaning is taken for the basis of classyfying lexical stylistic devices.
Lexical stylistics devices may be classified into:
1. Metaphor, metonymy, irony (primary and contextual meanings are interacted)
2. Zeugma and pun (primary and derivative meanings at work here)
3. Epithet and oxymoron (оксимОрон) (logical and emotive meanings are interacted)
4. Antonomasia (logical and nominal meanings)
All the expressive means may be classified in genuine SD (when the opposition is clearly perceived and both indicated meanings are simultaneously realized within the same short context we speak of fresh SD (original, speech SD) (принадлежность речи, не все так говорят)
When one of the meanings is suppressed by the other we speak of trite, hackneyed, language SD (ножка стула – метафора, всегда принадлежность языка).
Metaphor is transference of some quality from one object to another on the basis of their similarity. Similarity on which metaphorical renaming is based may concern any property of the thing which is meant (it may be color, form, shape, character of motion, speed, dimension, value). There is no connection between these object in reality. As the objects are disconnected the speaker should search for associations in his mind and it requires some intellectual efforts (усилий).
A metaphor becomes a SD when two different objects are simultaneously brought into mind by the imposition (сопоставление) of some of the inherent properties of one object on the other which is deprived of this properties.
Types:
1. genuine metaphoer (the leaves fell sorrowfully) – poetry, emotive prose.
2. Trite metaphor (seeds of evil, pearly teeth)
3.Sustained or prolonged metaphor. Some metaphors may be injected with a new live with the help of additional words containing a logical development of a previous metaphor (Mr Pickiwick bottled up (сркыл) his vengeance and corked it down). If often can be a tribe metaphors.
Metaphor can be a word, a phrase or even a sentence.
Metonymy is a stylistic device which can be define as a transfer of meaning based on contiguity.
Metonymy is based on a principle of substitution of one object for another, unlike metaphor the objects compared through metonymy are connected in reality. Trite genuine (the back of a chair, to earn one’s bread).
I was followed by a pair of a heavy boots (genuine metaphor).
Types of relations metonymy is based on:
1. a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion (the cump, the pulpit and the low for rich men’s sons are free)
2. the container instead of the thing contained (the hall applauded)
3. The relation of proximity (The round game table was boisterous and happy)
4.The material instead of the thing made of it (The marble spoke)
5. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer (As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the last – Byron).
6. A part instead of the whole and vv /synecdoche/; (Stop torturing the poor animal! (the dog). The name of the genus is used instead of the name of the spicious (?)
Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meaning (dictionary and contextual), these meaning stand in opposition to each other.
Irony can be realized by means of separate words usually adjectives, adverbs, or it may be a word combination or even a sentence. It can hardly be trite, it’s used in humorous, satirical, comic prose. It mustn’t be confused with humor. It always produces a satirical effect which is negative, while humor always causes laughter. Irony is highly-felt when a speaker uses elevated linguistic units with reference to insignificant socially low topics. (It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s own pocket)
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical, but different semantic relation to two adjusted words (She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief) (Шёл дождь и 2 студента. It
Zeugma consists in combining unequal semantically heterogeneous (разнородный) or even incomparedable words or phrases. It’s realized within the limits of one and the same sentence, its aim is to produce a humorous effect. It’s primarily used in emotive prose.
Pun (play upon words) is a stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase.
(Is life worth living? It depends upon the liver. What steps would you take if an enemy tank where coming toward you? Long ones)
The pun is based on polysemy and homonymy.
Epithet is a word, a phrase or even a sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out some properties of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception of these properties. Epithet is markedly subjective. It strongly influences a reader. Adjectives are especially effected by the formation of epithets.
Epithets may be classified:
1. Semantically:
A) Associated (to point a feature which is essential to the object which is described) ‘Dark Forest’
B) Unassociated epithets are the attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature which is not inherent in it (bread-and-butter letter – льстивое письмо, voiceless sand – беззвучные пески?:D)
2. Structurally
A) Simple, e.g. sweet voice, true love
B) compound, heart-burning smile
C) phrase, good-for-nothing boy
D) sentence, he spoke in what-are-you-going-to-do-about-it manner
E) reversed (two nouns linked in an of phrase, a military abbreviation of a smile, a long nightshirt of a mackintosh.
3. Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attributes describing a state of a human being, but created to refer to an inanimate object (sleepless pillow, disapproving finger
String of epithets gives a mani-sided depiction of the object (rosy-cheek, apple-faced young woman)
Oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite in sense (shouted silently, an open secret, awfully nice)
Oxymoron can have two structural models:
1. Adjective + noun
2. Adverb + adjective (terribly sorry, awfully nice)
Its aim to create a humorous effect. It may be used in oratory speeches, in advertising, in prose.
Antonomasia is based on the interaction of lexical meaning and their simultaneous realization in the word.
It is the use of the name of a historical, literary, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original. ‘Every Caesar has his Brutus’. (Proper name becomes a common name)
It is intended to point out the leading feature of a person or event, at the same time pinning (прикрепляя) this feature as a proper name to the person or event, at the same time pinning this feature as a proper name to the person or event (telling names). E.g., Scrooge, Mr Zero, Sobakevich.
Antonomasia is a kind of revival of the initial stage in naming.
The intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon:
1. Simile
2. Periphrasis
3. Euphemism
4. Hyperbole
Simile (симили) is an explicit statement of partial identity (likeness) of two objects:
1. like, as, as…as, though
2. to remind, to resemble,to seen;
‘He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent.’
Unlike in ordinary comparasment object compared by means of simile belong to different classes.
Simile and metaphor may differ not only in structure but also in its form. Metaphor may also be called hidden simile
Periphrasis (circumlocution) is a description of what could be name directly.
It may have a form of a phrase of a sentence. It’s use of longer phrase instead of a shorter one.
1. Logical (based on one of the inherent properties of the object or, perhaps, features of the object described) e.g., the most pardonable of human weaknesses = love
2. Figurative (based on metaphor, metonymy, irony)
e.g., the Sun = the punctual servant of all work, to marry = to tie the knot)
Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.
E.g., a person of unsound mind, a loony, a mentally disabled person.
The life of euphemism is short, very soon they become closely associated with the referent and thus give way to a new word or phrase.
Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feeling or feature essential to the object.
E.g., absolute perfection, to be about a thousand years old.
