Synonyms are two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech possessing (обладающий) one or more identical meaning interchangeable at least in some contexts, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades (оттенки)of meaning, connotation (окраска), affective value, style, and emotional coloring peculiar (свйоственный) to one of the elements in a synonymic group. (к одной части речи)
Classification of synonyms by VInogradov
The only existing classification of synonyms was established by professor Vinogradov. He classified synonyms into 3 types:
1. Ideographic words conveying (выражающие) the same notion but different in shades of meaning (ex,. Battle/fight)
2. stylistic synonyms – words differing in stylistic characteristics (ex., to put off/to postpone)
3. absolute synonyms – words coinciding (совпадающие) in all their shades of meaning and stylistic characteristic (ex., pilot – airman – flyer – flyingman; screenwriter – scriptwriter – scripter)
However the following aspects of Vinogradov’s classification are open to discussion due to the vagueness (неясность) of the suggested terms and definitions. A more effective approach to the classification of synonyms was suggested by Antrushina, (учебник Антрушиной, кстати)
This classification is based on certain differences in connotation by Antrushuna:
1. The connotation of intensity (ex., to shout, to yell, to bellow, to roar)
2. Emotive connotation (ex., alone-single-lonely-solitary)
3. Evaluative connotation (ex., to sparkle – to shine with amusement, happiness, to glitter – to shine with anger, malice-злоба)
4. Stylistic connotations (ex., snack-refreshemnt-feast (пир) – приём пищи)
5. Connotation of duration (ex., to shudder – brief action, to shiver – lasting action – вздрагивать)
6. Causative connotation (ex., to blush – from modesty, shame, embarrassment; to redden – from indignation (негодования)
7. Connotation of manner (ex., to stroll – to trot (нестись)– to pace(вышагивать) to stumble (запинаться))
8. Connotation of attendant circumstances (сопутствующие обстоятельства) (ex., to pip – through a hole, to peer – in darkness or through the fog)
9. Connotation of attendant features (ex., beautiful – associated with classical features and figure, pretyy – associated with some small delicate features and a fresh complexion)
After considering the sets of synonymous words we shall see that each synonymic group comprises (включать, содержать) a dominant element
The synonymic dominant expresses notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way without contributing any additional information to the manner of intensity of the referent (обозначаемое явление) (ex., to look - synonymic dominant of ‘pip, peer, stare) – самое общее значение.
We can underline the following characteristic of the dominant:
1. High frequency of usage
2. Broad combinability – ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words (обращующее наибольшее количество словосочетаний)
3. Broad general meaning
4. Lack of connotation
II. Antonyms are two or more words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech and to the semantic field identical in style and nearly identical in distribution (взаимозаменяемые противоположно) associated and used together so that their denotative meaning renders opposite notions.
Classification of antonyms by grouping them according to the type of notion they express into:
1 Contradictory antonyms (внутренне противоречивые) express mutually opposed and denying one another notions (ex., married=not single; male=not female; alive=not dead)
2. Contrary antonyms (противоположные/противоречащие друг другу) are so opposed to each other that the language admits possibilities between and beyond them. The denial of one member of the contrary opposition doesn’t necessarily imply the assertion of the other (old-middle-aged-young).
Classification of antonyms by John Lyons:
1. Antonyms proper (полные антонимы). They are regularly gradable (можно провести градацию). (ex., Love-hate. Love-attachment-liking-indeffereince-dislike-antipathy-hate)
2. Complementary antonyms imply self-denial (Ex., Prose-poetry)
3. Conversives denote one and the same referent as viewed from different angles that of subject and that of the object (ex., to reach – to learn, to buy-to sell)
4. Reversives designate (denote) the reverse or the undoing of the action expressed by one of them (ex., to tie-to untie; to marry-to divorce).
III. Homonyms.
Homonyms are the words, different in meaning and either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound.
Classification of homonyms (the most widely accepted):
1. Homonyms proper (or perfect homonyms) – words identical in pronunciation and spelling (ex., ball – round object and gathering of people)
2. Homophones are words of the same sound but of different meaning (ex., Aire – heir, bye – buy, steal – steel – still, write – right, sea - see). Homophonic sentences: ‘The sons raise meat; - The sun’s rays meet).
3. Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling (ex., bow – лук, bow [bau] – поклон, нос корабля; row [rou] – грести, ряд; row [rau] – шум, скандал, wind [wind] – ветер; wind [waind] – заводить часы.
Classification of homonyms by Smirnitsky:
1. Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same part of speech and have the same paradigm (match-matches – спика/соревнование)
2. Partial homonyms:
a) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms. These are words which belong to the same part of speech and their paradigms have one identical form (ex/. Found – past simple of to find, ‘to found’ – основывать)
и) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms. These are words of different parts of speech and have one identical form in their paradigms. (maid, made)
3. Partial lexical homonyms. These are words of the same part of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. (to hang (hung-hung) – вешать, to hang (hanged-hanged) – казнить) (lie-lay-lain; lie-lied-lied)
