I
1. . .
1.1 As soon as goods.they are consumed by the public, and new goods are produced.
a) are produced
b) produces
c) will produce
1.2 Thousands of years ago peoplesalesman.
a) will not need
b) did not need
c) was needed
1.3 In early medieval times in Europe, selling for profitsinful by the church.
a) will consider
b) considered
c) was considered
1.4 A list..you unnecessary buying and trips to the market.
a) is saved
b) will save
c) had saved
1.5 Japan .consistently the worlds largest importer of corn
a) was been
b) will be
c) has been
2. . .
2.1 We..insist on receiving payment for January.
a) might
b) must
c) could
2.2 With careful meal planning and marketing, you save money, time and work.
a) can
b) need
c) have to
2.3 A table tells you everything you..to know about the product.
a) be able to
b) should
c) need
2.4 Many advantagesbe obtained by Britain extending trade with the eastern countries.
a) are to
b) needed
c) need
2.5 Any breach of contractresult in legal actions.
a) will be able to
b) may
c) ought to
3. , : Participle I( ), Participle II( ).
3.1 The buyers ultimate is to buy grain at the lowest landed cost.
3.2 Arbitration is the favored means of resolving disputes arising out of international sales.
3.3 At present some imports entering Britain are not subject to customs duty.
3.4 Usually there is a large central warehouse and a central buying office.
3.5 As a rule the goods ordered are sent to the central warehouse.
4. .
International Trade
Trading with other countries is not the same as trading within one's own country. At home a company or a bank is familiar with its own people, laws and business practices. Abroad the picture becomes a complex one. Each country is different and therefore is said to carry different risks. Political risks, for example, relative to such varied factors as treaties, war, import quotas, and Foreign exchange restrictions.
Commercial risks, also to be found at home, may increase abroad because business practices in the foreign country may differ or because the foreign country may be in a weaker economic position than of the exporter's country. Trading abroad is also a risk because the seller usually does not know the buyer. Time and distance are factors that may create problems in communications and in the salability of goods, especially those which are perishable.
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Language barriers, differences in laws, and exchange rate fluctuations all add to a company's problems. Banks that finance world trade are guided in the same way as exporters. They take a very close look at each country they become involved with. They rate each country according to its overall country risk, which incompasses all the factors mentioned above.
5. .
.
5.1 Why does international trade carry more risks than domestic trade?
a) each country is different
b) trading with all countries is the same
c) companies are familiar with the people
5.2 What are the political risks?
a) economic position
b) goods
c) treaties, war, import quotas
5.3 What are the commercial risks?
a) foreign exchange restrictions
b) war
c) economic position
5.4 What are the additional companys problems?
a) differences in laws
b) customers
c) managers
5.5 What are the banks that finance world trade guided by?
a) buyers
b) exporters
c) sellers
II
1. . .
1.1 The buyers request for offersas a basic for negotiations.
a) will serve
b) is served
c) serves
1.2 The buyerwhether he wishes to purchase with reference to a flat price
a) will state
b) stated
c) has stated
1.3 After buyer and sellerto the purchase, a detailed contract is issued usually by the seller.
a) are agreed
b) agreeds
c) have agreed
1.4 They .the goods at a low price.
a) were offered
b) offered
c) had offered
1.5 The time of shipmentupon later.
a) will agree
b)will be agreed
c) agrees
2. . .
2.1 The consumer.keep buying the goods that the manufacturers turn out.
a) could
b) must
c) may
2.2 Since the cragsmennot always travel with their goods, the needed merchants who could sell the wares to strangers.
a) have to
b) could
c) was to
2.3 We shalldiscuss the terms of the contract next week.
a) should
b) needs
c) be able to
2.4 We didnt .let the buyer know about the ships departure.
a) needs
b) ought to
c) had to
3. , : Participle I( ), Participle II( ).
3.1 The accountant was asked to check the invoice.
3.2The fulfillment of the contract affected by different circumstances is very complex.
3.3 U.S. barley production normally exceeds total U.S. demand resulting in the availability of additional stocks for the export market.
3.4 Signing the agreement we were sure to obtain good results.
3.5Both seller and buyer try to protect themselves against possible risks by signing a contract.
4. .
Draft
A draft or bill of exchange is a negotiable instrument containing an order to pay. The seller, who is requesting payment, is called the drawer and the buyer, who is responsible for paying the draft, is called the drawee. In order to be negotiable, such instruments:
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1. Must be in writing and signed by the drawer;
2. Must contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a certain sum of money;
3. Must be payable on demand or at a fixed or determinable future time;
4. Must be payable to order or to bearer;
5. Must name the drawee or otherwise indicate the drawee therein with reasonable certainty.
Drafts can be drawn payable upon demand and are called either sight or demand draft. Drafts also- may be time drafts, which art payable at a later date. This date may be expressed as a number of days after sight (for example, 90 days after sight) or a number of day; after acceptance by the buyer (for example, 180 days after accept ance). Other possibilities are drafts drawn for payment after some document date (for example, 60 days after the bills of lading date), or at an agreed upon future date such as January 7, 1990, or in a fixed period such as 90 days after date of the draft. The draft covering the export of grain from the United States is generally expressed in U.S. dollars but may also be expressed in foreign currencies. The draf may be payable either to the. drawer or seller but more often it is; payable to the seller's bank.
5. .
.
5.1 What is the draft used for?
a) negotiations
b)payment
c) selling
5.2 What are the instruments to be negotiable?
a) must be in writing and signed by the drawer
b) must contain a conditional promise
c) must be unpayble on demand
5.3 What are the types of drafts?
a) unpayable
b) payable
c)demand
5.4 Why is the draft generally expressed in U.S. dollars?
a)When the export from Russia
b) When the export from other countries
c) When the export from the U.S.A
5.5 Whom is the draft payable more often?
a) to the drawer
b) to the sellers
c) to the seller
FLOURS AND OTHER GRAIN PRODUCTS
Grain products represent - the most economical foodstuffs. Although they are chiefly starch, whole grains also contain proteins, fats, and valuable minerals. Grain products are very important foods. Because of their high starch content, the fuel value is high. Because of their cheapness they are eaten freely; they provide proteins and minerals in liberal amounts.
The more commonly used cereals are wheat, corn, and oats.
Composition of grains. Grains are seeds. There are four essential components of all seeds: the bran or skin, the aleurone layer, the endosperm, and the germ. The bran is chiefly cellulose, containing a high percentage of the mineral content of grain. The aleurone layer represents a thin section between the bran and the endosperm or kernel of the seed. The aleurone layer is rich in protein and minerals. The endosperm contains the rest of the protein in the form of meshwork in which the starch granules are embedded.
The germ is the fat-containing protein of the grain. The composition of a cereal, as purchased depends upon what parts of the whole grain have been removed in the course of its manufacture. Because of the tendency of the fat to become rancid, the germ is removed in the manufacture of most cereals, although oatmeal and rolled oats form an exeption. Highly refined flours are made chiefly from the endosperm, along with more or less of the aleurone layer. Polished rice represents the unground endosperm of the rice seed.
Wheat. Wheat products come on the market in the form of ' flours and breakfast foods. Wheat flours represent the most important of the wheat products.
The white flours on the market differ greatly in quality and use. There are four principle classes of flour marketed: straight or patent bread flour, family or all-purpose flour, pastry flour, and cake flour. These differ in composition, price and use. At the same time, there are varying grades of each kind. The variation in quality and use of flours is due to many factors, of which the more important are the kind of wheat grown, the time of planting and milling.
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The so-called hard wheats are used for bread making flours, while the soft wheats are ground for pastry and cake flours. Certain wheats, such as the durum wheats, produce a flour best suited for the production of macaroni or spaghetti.
Composition of flours. The composition of the different flours varies. If we compare bread making flours straight bread and all-purpose flours with the pastry and cake flours, we find that the bread making flours have consistently less fat and minerals, a larger percentage of the smaller starch granules, and give a dough containing a larger percentage of high-quality gluten.
The main proteins in wheat are gliadin and glutenin. When these are wet with water, they form a sticky elastic mass which is called gluten. It is the gluten of the bread dough which make; it possible for it to hold such large quantities of leavening agent and produce a fire-textured, light loaf of bread.
Bread making flour or flours containing the most and best gluten will absorb the most liquid and cake flours the least. Bread flours will vary among themselves. Because of this fact, the ratio of flour to liquid in stiff doughs such as baking-powder biscuits, pastry, and bread doughs can never be definitely stated, unless the flour used is always of the same kind and standard quality.
Bills of Lading
The bills of lading convey title to the goods described therein. It is a contract by a carrier for the delivery of the goods and a receipt by the carrier for the merchandise being shipped. The bills of lading should show the name of the shipper, the vessel or carrier transporting the goods, the type of grain being exported, the port of shipment, the destination, the consignee, and the party to be notified upon arrival of the grain.
Bills of lading can be issued in two forms: straight (non-nego-tiable) or to order (negotiable). Some countries prohibit the issue of a bill of lading to order, in such cases the seller normally consigns the straight bill to an agent or a bank at the destination, with instructions to release the bills of lading to the buyer only upon payment. The shipping company should not release the bills of lading without the agreement of the agent or bank. If the straight bills are consigned to the buyer, the buyer can take possession of the goods upon identification without being required to present the bills of lading themselves.
Most bills of lading used in exporting grain are ocean bills of lading to order. They are issued by the steamship company in two or three original sets, each of which is negotiable. Thus, any one set gives the holder title to the goods. The presentation of any properly endorsed original will allow a holder to pick up the merchandise at the port of destination. The bills of lading may be endorsed in blank or endorsed to the buyer, his agent or some other third party.
The bills of lading must contain a dated on board endorsement initiated by the carrier or its agent indicating that the grain has been loaded. In very rare cases, bills of lading may be issued with a Received for Shipment endorsement, which indicates only that the grain has been received by the shipper and that space has been reserved on a particular vessel. Exhibit 3 in Appendix G shows a sample bill of lading.
OILS AND FATS
Hydrogenated fats. There are large quantities of solid and liquid fats which may be termed by-products of many industries.
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Mutton, lard, and suet are by-products of the meat packers. Cotton-seed oil is by-product of the cotton manufactures. The solid fats find a ready market. In the main they are sold for either margarine or soap, chiefly the latter. Oils do not make as good soap, and until recently their commercial value was low. From the point of view of economics, the difference between solid and liquid fat is great, while chemically speaking the main difference is only a molecule of hydrogen. After considerable experimental work, the proper conditions for hydrogenation of liquid were discovered. Solid fats in enormous amounts are now made from the less useful liquid fats. The hydrogenated fats on market are made from oleic and linoleic acids. In the manufacture, pure hydrogen (made by electrolysis of water), is passed through the purified oils which are kept at a suitable temperature in the presence of suitable catalyst (oxides of nickel and other metal). If all the unsaturated fats in an oil were completely hydrogenated, the resultant product would be extremely hard and, therefore, undesirable for shortening purposes.
Any fat too soft for use may be hardened by hydrogenation. Certain manufactures hydrogenate whale oil, which is then added to other fats to be made into a margarine. The removal of nickel from hydrogenated fat is never complete, but the amount left in the fat is insufficient to be harmful, as has been shown by a number of tests.
Fats hardened by hydrogenation have little tendency to become rancid by hydrolysis and may be heated to a high temperature without decomposition.
Their plasticity and degree of unsaturation flavour the preparation of well-shortened but flaky pastry.
Unlike butter and margarines, they have no flavour or odor and are, practically speaking, 100 per cent fat. When substituted for butter or margarines, these differences must be taken into consideration. Because of their lack of flavour, they are often used as substitutes for lard or suet inspite of their greater cost. The digestibility of hydrogenated fats is practically identical with that of butter.
Lard. Lard has excellent shortening power. When of high quality it decomposes at temperatures well above those required for deep-fat frying. Apart from cost, the chief difference in the lards marketed is in the acid content and the texture. The better quality lards are neutral, or nearly so, and are hard when cold but plastic at ordinary temperatures.
The cheaper grades are slightly acidic and, therefore, do not keep so well and decompose at a lower temperature. At ordinary temperatures they are usually softer than the better grades.
German wine guide.
Germany has a bipolar wine market. On the one hand, the most public face of its wine industry (and at this level it really is industry as opposed to agriculture) are the cheap, sugary, fruitless Liebfraumilch and other branded wines. These are of poor quality, and yet they are the first German wines most drinkers will come across, usually at the local supermarket. They hardly inspire the budding wine enthusiast to explore further, and they are the reason why many drinkers of everyday wines express surprise when I tell them of my love for German wine.
It is not these plonk wines, however, that I enjoy, but rather wines from a selection of producers that you are unlikely to find anywhere other than a specialist retailer. These wines are from the grand producers of the Mosel and Rheingau. German white wine leads the way, what reds are produced are of considerably less interest. When discussing German white wine the greatest are almost exclusively Riesling, although top producers may fashion good wines from less noble grape varieties (the reds are Pinot Noir, known in Germany as Spatburgunder). Just 100 years ago German white wine of this sort of quality was extremely popular. Widely regarded as the finest wines in the world, they sold for prices well in excess of the first growth chateaux in Bordeaux (and that's expensive!).
These wines are less prominent today because the German wine industry has a serious image problem. The downfall of German wine resulted from a number of factors, including German economic decline, two world wars, the introduction of brands focussed on quantity rather than quality, the use of lesser quality hybrid grapes such as Muller-Thurgau and, of course, the changing tastes of the consumer. Nevertheless, the top producers have continued in the background, consistently producing very fine wines, which frequently prove to be uneconomic to produce.
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Germanys wine terminology
Germany is often accused of having the most confusing, cluttered wine labels, yet in truth many of them are quite beautiful, and contain a wealth of information. All one has to do is see past the occasional use of Olde Worlde script, and get to grips with a few words of German.
There is much information that can be gathered from a German wine label. Each of the labels shown here clearly declare the vintage, the grape (Riesling), and that the wine originates from the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer. Looking in particular at Fritz Haag's label, this tells us that the grapes were grown in the Juffer-Sonnenuhr vineyard around the town of Brauneberg. The label gives us a few other pieces of information, but there are two snippets worth concentrating on: the Pradikat, and the AP number.
Progress in confectionery production.
Confectionery industry has a long history. It goes back into ancient times. It goes back into ancient times. It starts with the discovery of honey.
Ancient people learnt to mix honey with chopped fruit and nuts. It was a delicious sweetmeat. This was the first confectionery item in the world. When in the middle ages cane sugar was brought to Europe it was used for the production ofsugar sweets.
Chocolate was first brought to Europe by the Spaniards in the 16th century. At that time it was used as a beverage. Later on the manufacture of chocolate candies was started in France. The first chocolate candies consisted of ground cocoa beans and sugar and were prepared by the mere mixing of these two ingredients.
The 17th century was a period of considerable progress in confectionery. Many new types of confectionery goods appeared. But till the end of the 18th century most of the processes in confectionery production had been carried out manually (by hand) or by water-driven machines. The invention of steam power engines by James Watt gave rise to the development of confectionery machinery as well.
Nowadays all the processes in confectionery production are done by machines. At a chocolate producing plant cleaning and grading machines free raw beans of foreign bodies, such as clay, metal, stone, fibre, etc.
Various roasters, fired by gas or coke, are usually installed at modern plants for roasting cocoa beans. Removal of shell and germ is also carried out by machines. The cocoa bean from which the shell and the germ were removed is called a nib. Nibs are fed into the hopper of a grinding mill which grinds them into a liquor. The liquor is pumped to a pressing machine for extraction of cacao-butter. At this stage of production cocoa powder can be made. If chocolate is to be produced the liquor is passed to the melangeurs or mixing machines (mixers) and some sugar is added to the mass.
The treatment of conching imparts very fine physical structure to chocolate and improves its taste. After conching the chocolate is moulded, cooled and wrapped. This procedure is almost entirely automatic at modern confectionery factories.
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260202,260203,260204,080401.
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