(l)"pit, pat, pot, bet, tip, ten, top, took;
, , , , , , , (2) fact, taken, rhythm, prism, region, bacon, listen;
, , , , , , , :
176'
(3) depths, lapsed, boxed, lisped, lifts, busts;
, , , , ,
(4) , price, shriek, fret, smoke, twice;
, , , , ,
(5) do, go, so, dew, he, pea, pie, boy;
, , , , , ,
(6) spy, stay, blue, brew, pray, dry;
, , , , ;
(7) ought, eat, orb, oak, eight, out, art,
, , , , , , ,
(8) splay, spray, straw;
, , ,
(9) ebbed, act, ask, else, aunt, apt
, , , , ,
(10) aked, aunts, asks, eights, acts, elks
,
(11) spleens, springs, sprawls, sprains, strains, screams;
, , ,
(12) serpents, patents, students, servants, licensed;
, , , ,
(13) spleen, split, street, struck, squeek, scroll;
, , , , ,
(14) twiddle, trance, plosion, flask, flint, thrust;
, , , ,
(15) stamps, tramps, twelfth, cleansed, clenched, ƻ;
, ,
*2, (a) Divide these words into phonetic syllables, (b) Give their syllable structural^ patterns.
people, bugle, satchel, trifle, rhythm, April, equal, happens, marbles, patterns, dragons, urgent, servant, listened, heralds, errands, parents, tangents, patients, scaffold?
*3. Define the number of syllables in these words according to the sonority theory.
alone, female, unfortunate, insufficient, machine, unimportant, yesterday, aristocracy, appetite, remarkable, solecism, misunderstand, inferiority, window, tomato, satisfactory, electrification
4. Mark initially strong consonants with a single line and initially weak con sonants with^two Tines.
, la-, ii:-te, llai-, 'sek-ta, 'bu-tl, U:-gl,, j
'-bi, 'mi-dl, 'wm-ta, '-, msep, film
S. Supply each word of exercise 4 with the corresponding arc of loudness.
a. Read these examples to prote the semantic importance^ of the correct syllable boundarv. Mark dose juncture by pluses,
a nationan Asian see Mableseem able
a nice housean ice house it swingsits wings
the tall boysthat all boys
*7. Analyse these words from the viewpoint of phonetic and orthographic syllable division; transcribe and divide them into syllabographs.
work, working, worker, pined, pining, stirring, occurred, cured, cheerless, curing, cheering, firing, redder, nation, culture, thoroughly
Control Tasks
*1. Arrange these words into three columns according to the type of syllable structure: (a) closed uncovered, (b) closed covered, (c) open covered.
took, pray, lifts, at, straw, boy, aunt, texts, clenched, tip, pea, struck, strays, elks, thrust, bet, fact, fret, asks, ebbed, price
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
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*2. Write out: (a) initially weak (finally strong) and (b) finally weak (initially strong) consonants.
sit, lame, back, miss, sack, grave, tip, tide, top, late, mad, made, nine, till, cake, thick, bat, pin, pine, hate, act, ice, plot, face, hid, fate, stamp, spot, pile, land, mist, mole, mark, gold, cap, nose, fix, harm, merry, horn, start, form
*3. Divide these words into phonetic syllables.
comfortable, cottage, orchard, ground, kitchen, pantry, study, several, upstairs, bedroom, nursery, bathroom, furniture, modern, own, electricity, January, February, August, September, October, November, December, Wednesday, Tuesday, Thursday
*4. Divide these words into syllabographs (where possible).
parents, fire, plural, rural, dinner, marry, disappear, speaking, writing, playing, walking, standing, passing, breakfast, potatoes, tomatoes, coffee, cabbage, bananas, berries, pudding, pears, beer, shopping, ironing, housework, mistake, fishing
*S. Mark with /+/ open Juncture in the examples below. Turn them into examples with close juncture.
a name for it; a black tie; not at all; that's tough; I saw her rise; the waiter cut it; Isawthem eat; why choose; my train; keep sticking; gray day
VII. STRESS
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable: 14.
Stress is defined differently by different authors, B. A. Bogorodi-tsky, for instance, defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. D. Jones defined stress as the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhalation and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet also> stated that stress is connected with the force of breath. Later, however, D. Jones wrote, that "stress or prominence is effected... by inherent sonority, vowel and consonant length and by intonation." l A, C, Gim-son also admits that a more prominent syllable is accompanied by pitch changes in the voice, quality and quantity of the accented! sounds.
If we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words. contract /'kuntrsekt/ , to contract /ta kan'trsekt/ , we may note that in the stressed syllable:
(a) the force of utterance is greater, which is connected with more
energetic articulation;
(b) the pitch of the voice is higher, which is connected with strong
er tenseness of the vocal cords and the walls of the resonance chamber;
(c) the quantity of the vowel /se/ in /ksn'trsekt/ is greater, the
vowel becomes longer;
(d) the quality of the vowel /se/ in the stressed syllable is differ
ent from the quality of this vowel in the unstressed position, in which
it is more narrow than /'se/.
On the auditory level a stressed syllable is the part of the word, which has a special prominence. It is produced by a greater loudness and length, modifications in the pitch and quality. Their physical correlates are: intensity, duration, frequency and the formant structure. All these features can be analysed on the acoustic level.
Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.
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In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more significant than the others. According to the most important feature different types of word stress are distinguished in different languages.
1) If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress.
1 Jones D. An Outline of English Phonetics. 9th ed. Cambridge, 1960,P. 247.
2) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly
through the change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called
musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and
other oriental languages.
3) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through
the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the
stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is
called quantitative.
4) Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes in
the quality of the vowel under stress.
English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in faet, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice.
Russian word stress is not only dynamic but mostly quantitative and qualitative. The length of the Russian vowels always depends on the position in a word. The quality of unaccented vowels in Russian may differ greatly from the quality of the same vowels under stress, e.g. /a/ in , '1, is realized as /a, 5, /. /, , / undergo the greatest changes, /y/ and // are not so much reduced when unstressed.
Stress difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of the English language are connected with the vowel special and inherent prominence. In identical positions the intensity of English vowels is different. The highest in intensity is /a/, then go /:, :, i:, u:, se, u, e, u, i/.
The quantity of long vowels and diphthongs can be preserved in (a) pretonic and (b) post-tonic position.
a) idea /ai'dra/ b) placard /iplsekad/
sarcastic /saiksestik/ railway /ireriwei/
archaic /aikeuk/ compound /ifcmpaund/
All English vowels may occur in accented syllables, the only exception is //, which is never stressed. English vowels /i, u, / tend to occur in unstressed syllables. Syllables with the syllabic /1, m, n/ are never stressed.
Unstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide quality.
In stressed syllables ^English stops have complete closure, fricatives have full friction, features of fortis/lenis distinction are clearly defined.
tress can be characterized as fixed and free. In languages with fixed type of stress the place of stress is always the same. For example in Czech and Slovak the stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In Italian, Welsh, Polish it is on the penultimate syllable.
In English and Russian word-stress is free, that is it may fall on any syllable in a word:
on the first ^mother
on the second occasion
on the third deWnation
Stress in English and in Russian is not only free but also shifting. In both languages the place of stress may shift, which helps to differentiate different parts of speech, e.g. Hnsult to , Hmport to imSpoH. In Russian: $, , are adjectives, , , are adverbs, , , may be pronouns and conjunctions: ; ; .
In English ^billow is , beUow . Similar cases can be observed in Russian: ~ , , .
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When the shifting of word-stress serves to perform distinctive function, V. Vassilyev terms this suprasegmental phonological unit form distinctive accenteme, when it serves to distinguish the meaning of different words, its term is word-distinctive accenteme.
Stress performs not only distinctive function, it helps to constitute and recognize words and their forms (constitutive and recognitive functions).
Strictly speaking, a polysyllabic word has as many degrees of stress as there are syllables in it. American and English phoneticians give the following pattern of stress distribution in the word examination. They mark the strongest syllable with primary accent with the numeral 1, then goes 2, 3, etc.
It is more convenient and vivid to represent this pattern of stress distribution in the following way.
|
i g, m r n ei
3 2 4 i
,0 p 8 tlUinit I 1 V 1 5 3 1
| i 1 | \ | |
| \ 1 | \ / | |
| v | \/ | |
| 4j | V |
The number of lines corresponds to the number of syllables in a word. The primary strongest stress mark is placed on the highest line, the second strongest one is placed on the second line, the other stress marks are distributed on the appropriate lines according to accentual sonority. The vertical lines, drawn perpendicularly to the lowest line vividly show the degree of accentual sonority of the syllabic phonemes and the height of the voice pitch, which is bigger within the strongest syllable, smaller within the second strongest syllable, etc.
The least strong syllable has the lowest sonority and pitch (5 in
our examples). Such graphs help to visualize the greater intensity of syllables with primary and secondary stress compared to other,, less prominent syllables.
There is some controversy about degrees of the word-stress terminology and about placing the stress marks. Most British phoneticians term the strongest stress primary, the second strongest secondary and all the other degrees of stress weak. The stress marks placed before the stressed syllables indicate simultaneously their places and the point of syllable division: examination.
American descriptivists (B. Bloch, G. Träger) distinguish the following degrees of word-stress: loud /i/, reduced loud /"/, medial /V, weak, which is not indicated. H. A. Gleason defines the degrees of stress as primary 14, secondary /"/, tertiary /7, weak /"/, (H. Sweet distinguishes weak /v/, medium, or half-strong (:{, strong /7 and extrastrong, or emphatic stress /;/.
V. A. Vassilyev, D. Jones, R. Kingdon consider that there are three degrees of word-stress in English: primarystrong, secondarypartial, weakin unstressed syllables. For example: certification /|S3:tifiikeiJ"ön/the second and the third syllables have weak stress, which is not marked.
Most English scientists place the stress marks before the stressed syllables and don't mark monosyllabic words.
Some American scientists suggest placing the stress marks above the vowels of the stressed syllable, e.g. blackbird /:/. They place the stress marks even on monosyllabic words, e. g. cat, penY map.
In the Russian word-stress system there are two degrees of word accent: primary and weak. The stress marks in the Russian phonetic tradition are placed above the vowels which are the nuclei of the syllable, e. g. " .
The dictionary of accent for TV and radio workers gives some words with two stresses /7-primary, /7secondary (), e.g. , , , .
Some scientists distinguish between stressed and accented syllables. O'Connor states: "Accent... is indicated by stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs... without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented." Stressed syllables in the text have the symbol /i/, accented syllables have the symbol /'/. For example: \Are you doming \back again onfiunday? On tonograms stressed and unstressed syllables, according to O'Connor, * correspond to big and small dots.
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Gimson suggests marking accentual elements in the following way:
j a black dot with a downward curve corresponds to the syllable, receiving primary accent.
1 O'Connor I. D., Arnold 0. F. Intonation of Colloquial English. L. 1959.P. 18.
18a
a black dot, or a "white" dot correspond to the syllable receiving secondary accent.
.a tiny dot corresponds to the unaccented syllable. Here are some accentual patterns for 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-, 9- syllable words according to Gimson's representation:1
* unknown; female, window *
■ quantity, yesterday; tobacco, tomato ■ '
* ■ remarkable, impossible; conterattack > ■ a
............. affiliation, consideration;rehabilitate >
■ ■ ■ characteristically
unilateralism; internationalization ■ ■
In spite of the fact that word accent in the English stress system is free, there are certain factors that determine the place and different degree of word-stress. V. A. Vassilyev describes them as follows:
(1) recessive tendency, (2) rhythmic tendency, (3) retentive tendency and (4) semantic factor.
(1) Recessive tendency results in placing the word-stress on the initial syllable. It can be of two sub-types: (a) unrestricted recessive accent, which falls ön the first syllable: father /'faSs/, mother /'/ and (b) restricted recessive accent, which is characterized placing the word accent on the root of the word if this word Jias a prefix, which has lost its meaning: become /1</, begin bi
(2) Rhythmic tendency results in alternating stressed and un
stressed syllables, e.g. pronunciation /|1151!1,>/.
(3) Retentive tendency consists in the retention of the primary
.accent on the parent word, e.g. person personal /ip3:sn!ps:snl/.
More commonly it is retained on the parent word as a secondary
accent, e.g. similarsimilarity /'stmibisnniHaentr/.
(4) Semantic factor.
Given below are the rules of word-stress in English:
1. In words of 2 or 3 syllables the primary stress mostly falls
on the first syllable, e.g. terror, Cabinet, ^sensible.
2. In prefixal words the primary stress typically falls on the
syllable following the prefix, e.g. impossible, recall, behind.
3. In prefixal words with prefixes having their own meaning,
the place of stress is on the prefix, e. g. ^anti-capitalist, \non-Party,
^ex-minister, ■ W ice-president, ^ultra-fashionable,
4. In prefixal verbs which are distinguished from similarly
spelt nouns and adjectives, the place of stress is on the second
syllable, nouns and adjectives have their stress on the initial syl-
}al>le, e.g.
verb noun adjective
to compound 'compound
to in'crease I increase
1 Gimson A. C. Op. cit.
5. Suffixes: -esce, -esque, -ate, -ize, -fy, -ette, -ique, -, -eer,
-ade have the place of stress on the preceding syllable or en them
selves, e.g. [picturesque, \Cigairette, technique, \re\e\ree, \,
\tnarVnade, fluaWfy, tspecia4ize, dictate.
6. Suffixes: -ical, -ic, -ion, -ity, -ian, -dent, -ieticy, -eous,
-ual, -uous, -ety, -itous, -ive, -ative (-Hive), -itude, -ident, -inal,
-ital, -wards have the place of stress on the preceding syllable,
e.g. economic, grammatical, position, majority, ^special, etc.
7. In words of four or more syllables the place of stress is'on
the antepenultimate syllable (third from the end), e.g. Emergency f
caHamity, historical.
In compound words the first element is stressed when:
1. compounds are written as one word, e. g. lappletree, ^bedroom?
^caretaker, 'watchdog, ^downcast;
2. nouns are compounded of a verb and an adverb, e. g. a ' pick
up, a ^make-up;
3. nouns in the possessive case are followed by another noun
e. g. a \doWs house, Hady's maid.
In compound words the second element is stressed when:
1. food items have the first element which is of a material
used in manufacturing the whole, e. g. apple Hart',
2. names of roads, parks and squares are implied, e. g. CaUhe-
dral iRoad, Park Wace (but CaHhedral street);
3. parts of the house and other buildings are implied, e.g.
front idoor, kitchen ^window;
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4. adjectives with past participles characterizing'personsi e.g..
thick-skinned, cold-blooded (but \downcast);
5. compound nouns ending in -er or -ing are followed by an1
adverb, e.g. passer iby, summing '.
Two equal stresses are observed: (a) in composite verbs, e.g* to igive \up, to \come If;
(b) in numerals from 13 to 19, e.g. \six4een, ififHeen. The semantic factor is observed in compounds:
(a) when compound nouns denote a single idea, e. g. ^blacksmith
(), ^walking stick (, ); \drawing room (
);
(b) when the first element of the compound is most important
e. g. \birthday ( ), \darning needle ( ;
Am. );
(c) when the first element of the compound is contrasted with
some other word, e.g. \flute player (), not player
();
(d) when a compound is very common and frequently used it
may have a single stress, e.g. \midsummer (1-1 ); ^mid
night ().
The rhythmic tendency is very strong in modem English. Due to its influence there are such accentual variants as: capitalist /■toepitehst/, /katprtelist/, hospitable /Urespitebl/, /hesipitebl/, etc..
In sentences words with two equal stresses can be pronounced!
with one single stress Runder the influence of rhythm, e. g. Uhir-Heen, but: Her ^number is Ukirteen ^hundred.
Under the influence of rhythm a shifting of word-stress can be observed in words with secondary stress, e. g.: [qualification ljust qualification ^qualification (emphatic variant).
The rhythmic stress affects the stress pattern of a great number of words in the English language. This results in the secondary accent, e. g. refugee, employ^ee, engineer, picturesque, occupation, recommendation, etc.
Under the influence of rhythm compounds of three elements may have a single stress on the second element; e.g. hot iwater bottle , waste ' paper basket (\hoi \water bottle, \waste \paper basket may also occur.).
In everyday speech the following variants of stress patterns can also be observed:
J. stylistically conditioned accentual variants, e. g. territory /jteriib:n/ (full style)/itentri/ (rapid colloquial style);
| p Similar cases can be observed in Russian, e. g. //, which is pronounced in full style, and //, pronounced in rapid colloquial style. //, //both variants are correct. Free accentual variants should not be confused with orthoe-pically incorrect accentuation. According to the data given by Soviet and foreign phoneticians-the most common types of English stress pattern are: in two-syllable words , e.g. after 1, e.g. before in three-syllable words -----, e.g. family I, e.g. importance |
2. individual, free accentual variants, e.g. hospitable/ ihospitabl/,
itebl/
Questions
1. How is stress defined by different authors? 2. What is stress on the auditory, articulatory and acoustic level? 3. What types of word-stress do you know? 4. To what type of word-stress does the English accentual structure belong? 5. To what type of word-stress does the Russian accentual structure belong? 6. What is the difference between stressed vocalism in English and in Russian? 7. What is the difference between fixed and free type of word-stress? 8. What is the shifting of word-stress? 9. How does stress perform constitutive, distinctive and recognitive functions? 10. How can the stress patterns be represent^ ed graphically? 11. What is the terminology suggested by different authors to distinguish betwen different degrees of word-stress? 12. How is stress represented in written form? 13. How does Gimson mark accentual elements? 14. What factors determine the place and different degree of word-stress? 16. What rules of word-stress do you know a) for prefixal words, b) for compound words? 16. How does theseman-
tic factor affect the place of word-stress? 17. How does the rhythmic tendency influence word-stress system in modern English? 18. What are the most common types of English stress patterns?
Exercises
*I. Read these compound words with two equal stresses and translate them.
unaided /lAn'eidid] repack /irkipaek/
tmalienable '^/ prepaid /'prUpeid/
unaltered /'':1/ misspell /imis'spel/
unarmed /Uniarad/ misuse /imis'ju:z/
unaspirated /lAn'sespireitid/ misrule /'mis'ru:l/
unclean /''/ misquote /'mis'kwaut/
anticyclonic /lantisai'kkmik/ misplace /'misipleis/
anti-national /isentilnaej9nl/ under-dressed /Undaidrest/
non-payment /'mm! pennant/ underoificer ^Andatofisa/
non-resident /'monirezidsnt/ underpopulated /'d'j
non-stop /inon'stup/ leitid/
ex-minister /leks1 minis tg/ vice-adrairal /ivais'eedmiral/
reopen /''/ vice-consul /'vais'konsal/
reorganize /'1:':/ pre-history /iprh'histan/
ultra-modern /'
*2. Read these compound adjectives with two equal stresses and translate them.
igood-ilooking, !old-!fashioned, 'bad-'tempered, labsent-iminded f fbare-'headed, inome-imade
Note. When a compound adjective has a synonym to its first element, the stress is on the first element:
!oval-shaped=oyal Syellow ish-! ooking=yellowish Jsquare-sha ped=square Igreenish-Iooking=greenish
3. Read these composite verbs with two equal stresses,
'carry 'out igo 'on
'come a!cross 'point 'out
iget 'up 'put ion
'see 'off isit idown
'set lup Hake 'off ()
ifall 'out ; ifall 'back
imake 'up iget 'back
'blow 'out ibring 'forth
Ipick 'out 'fix lup
*4. Read these compound words with one single stress on the first, most important part of the compound, and translate them.
apple-tree, bystander, daybreak, birthday, sheep dog, pillowcase, school-boy, suit-case, time-table, inkpot, hair-do, housewife, everything, fire-place, broadcast, fountain-pen, anyone
*5. Read these compound nouns with one stress denoting a single idea and translate them.
butterfly, newcomer, butter-fingers, blacksmith, greatcoat, airplane, bluebottle, butter-boat, butterdish, bookmark
*6. Read these pairs of words. Translate them into Russian, mind the semantic importance of word-stress (distinctive and recognitive function).
^blackboard'black 'board 'overwork'over 'work 'blackbird'black 'bird 'yellow-cup'yellow 'cup 'strongbox'strong 'box 'tallboy'tall 'boy
7. Read these pairs of words. Translate them into Russian, mind the impor
tance of the form-distinctive accenteine.
'abstractto ab'stract 'desertto de'sert
'communeto co'mmune 'forecastto fore'cast
'compoundto com'pound 'importto im'port
^conflictto conflict 'outgoto out'go
'contestto con'test 'produceto pro'duce
8. Translate these words. Mind the position of secondary stress on the first
syllable in the (a) column and on the second syllable in the (b) column.
(a),modification (b) ad,minis'tration
,oma mentation a,f filiation
,qualification assimilation
,represenitation consideration
,archaeo4ogical e,xami'nation
,tempera' mental pro,nunci 'ation
,aristo'cratic an,tago'nistic
,mathematician academician
9. Mark the accentual elements of these words according to Gimson's accen
tual patterns. Read them.
2-syttable words: female, window, profile, over, under, cotton, table, husband
3-syltabte words: important, excessive, relation, appetite, photograph, telephone
4-sytlabte words: unimportant, insufficient, melancholy, caterpillar, criticism, capitalize
5'Syttable words: satisfactory, aristocracy, administrative, empiricism, consideration, circumlocution
6-sytlabte words: variability, meteorological, autobiographic, identification
7-and 8-syllable words: unreliability, industrialization, impenetrability, unilateralism, uninteligibility
10. Read the sentences below to prove the distinctive function of the stress. Translate them into Russian.
1. 'Contrast makes it seem better. 2. 'Export is forbidden.
Contrast Tom with his sister. Ex'port cotton goods.
It's because of 'contrast. These goods the cities ex'port.
It's because they con'trast,
3. This 'forecast was wrong. 4. A iprefix is added.
I like his iforecast. Pre'fix a paragraph to Chap-
ter I.
It's what they forecast. It's a 'prefix.
It's a paragraph they decided to pre'fix.
5. He is a 'suspect. 6. They gave way without " pro-
He is the man we susipect. test.
The 'suspect is here. They decided to pro'test.
We susipect this man. This iprotest was wrong.
Protest against it.
11. Put down the stress marks in the words below. Read them according to the model.
Model: qualification ljust [qualification (emphatic variant)
centralization, modification, composition, nationalization, organization, anticipation, intercession, overbalance, justification, hospitality, satisfactory, sentimentality, impossibility, idiomatic, artificial, unaccountable, fundamental, distribution, representation, characteristic, ornamentation, interrogation, administration
\2. Put down the stress marks in the words below. Tran late them into Rus sian and read according to the stress pattern.
ascertain, acquiesce, grotesque, cigarette, antique, saloon, employee, career, lemonade, atomic, phonetic, phonological, familiarity, proletarian, beneficial, efficient, aqueous, residual, impetuous, propriety, active, relative, gratitude, attitudinal, sagittal, upwards
Control Tasks
*1. Provide these words with necessary stress marks.
;ir-raid, birdcage, coalmine, teapot, washstand, mail-bag, dance-music, grandfather, handwriting, shopkeeper, ladybird, office-boy, waiting-room, dinner-jacket, tape recorder, labour exchange, ground floor, knee-deep, cross-question, flat-footed, shop-window, hot-water-bottle, waste-paper-basket, post-graduate, vice-chancellor, secondhand
*2. Transcribe the words and put down stress marks in these verbs and nouns. Translate them.
absent n absent v combine n combine v
compress n~ compress v concert n concert v
consort n consort v desert n desert v
produce nproduce v outlay n outlay v
infix n infix v
3. Give examples to show the existence of word and form-distinctive accen-
tcmes in English and in Russian.
4. Give examples of the most common stress patterns in English,
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