bid beard pooh poor too tour at out deaddared ass ice ate eight ladderlower pod poured mannerminor letterlater mass mouse
Control Tasks
Which of the given examples illustrate (a) high, mid, open and (b) front, mixed, back oppositions?
beadbedbad deeddeaddad cabcurbcub tanturnton hadbirdbud hathurthut
Arrange these words into minimal distinctive pairs.
cart, wart, Boz, caught, dor, wrat, bars, cod, card, down, cot, cord
Sort out these oppositions into two columns: (a) closing diphthong vs. closing diphthong, (b) centring diphthong vs. centring diphthong.
known noun beerbear hayhigh rearrare phonedfound ear air baybuy no now hear hair tear tear fearfair hoehow
tape type
CONSONANT PHONEMES. DESCRIPTION OF PRINCIPAL VARIANTS
Strictly speaking, it is impossible to give an exact and detailed description of a sound within the limits of a short definition, because not a single sound is pronounced identically even twice. Sounds undergo changes due to the individual manner and even mood of the speaker and due to the complementary distribution in which every sound exists in the language.
The first step to learn a sound is to isolate it. It means that for teaching purposes we single out the principal, or typical variant of the phoneme as a segment of the system, which is conventionally free from any influences. Then a detailed description of this variant should be carried out by means of simultaneous comparison with the similar sound of the mother tongue. The next stage is the mastering of the sound, which is done by teaching the students to pronounce the sound in a definite set of contexts in which this sound occurs. The
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final stage is to automatize the newly acquired abilities of the students.
Consonants are best of all learnt if the teacher directs the attention of the students to tactile and muscular sensations of the organs of speech. In teaching to articulate sounds, diagrams and tables are very helpful.
Occluslve Noise Consonant Phonemes (Plosives)/p, b, t, d, k, g/
/P. b/
I.1 In the articulation of /p/ the vocal cords do not vibrate, therefore /p/ is voiceless, but the force of exhalation and the muscular tension is great, /p/ is fort is.
II. The lips are brought together and form a complete obstruction-,,
/p/ is labial, bilabial. In the pronunciation of the Russian /n, 61'
the lips are not spread and they are less tense.
III. The obstruction is broken with a kind of explosion, /p/ is occfif--
sive (plosive, or stop).
(1) In the production of /p/ noise prevails'over voice, /p/ is a noise
consonant.
(2) There is only one place of articulation in the /p/ production, so
it is unicentral.
IV. The air passes out of the mouth cavity, /p/ is oral.
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/b/ is pronounced in the similar way, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate, the force of exhalation is not great and the muscular tension is not strong, therefore /b/ is voiced lenis labial, bilabial, occlusive, noise, unicentral, oral.
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The English _/p/ is pronounced with aspiration, when it is followed by a vowel in a stressed syllable and not preceded by /s/.
The Russian /n/ is pronounced without aspiration. Aspiration is a slight puff of breath, which is heard immediately after the "explosion" is accomplished. That is, when the contact is released, the glottis \s still open, the air escapes from the mouth cavity with a plosion.
The Russian 161 is fully voiced in the initial position, the English /b/ is slightly devoiced. Cf. Bill . /b/ is fully voiced between voiced sounds.
In the terminal position the Russian 161 can be devoiced almost completely: e.g. //, //, etc.
The English /b/ is devoiced but slightly: sob, rob, mob.
The English /p,' b/ are never soft, whereas in Russian there are two independent phonemes /n n7 and /6 6'/.'It can be proved by the existence of such pairs as: , , etc.
1 The figures I, II, III, IV correspond to the principles of consonant classification (see p. 25).
Soft articulation of the consonant is called palatalization. Its simultaneous mechanism for /n, 61 closure is the following: as soon as the lips are pressed to form a complete obstruction primary focus, the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate (front secondary focus).
To avoid palatalization of /p, b/ in the initial position when they are followed by front vowels it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:
peel bill
Graphic Equivalents of the /p, b/ Phonemes
/p/ is pronounced when spelt as:
p pen /pen/
pp happy /'haspi/
gh hiccough /'/
/p/ is not pronounced:
(1) in the following words*.
cupboard /'kAbad/, raspberry /'razban/, receipt /nisi:t/
(2) in Greek words before n, s, t:
pneumonia /njuimaunja/ , pneumatic /njuimae-tik/, psalm /sam/, Ptolemy /ibtemi/
/b/ is pronounced when spelt as: b be /bi:/ bb ebb /eb/
// is not pronounced after m and before t:
lamb /lsem/, plumber /11/, comb /kaum/, bomb /bum/, debt /det/, doubt
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/daut/, subtle /'sAtl/,
/
I. /t/ is voiceless fortis, /d/ is voiced lenis;
II. lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar;
III. occlusive (plosive, or stop)
(1) noise, (2) unicentral;
IV. oral.
The English /t/ is pronounced with aspiration, the Russian hi is not aspirated, see /p/.
The English /t, d/ are never soft, whereas in the Russian language
there are two independent phonemes: h/ and /7, // and /7. It can be proved by the existence of such minimal pairs, as:
ĸ
The English /t, d/ are apical: the tip of the tongue is against the alveolar ridge, the Russian /, / are dorsal: the blade of the tongue touches the upper teeth, the tip being passive and lowered.
To avoid palatalization of the English/t, d/ in the initial position, when they are followed by front vowels, it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:
tea /ti:/ Tim /Um/ Dick /dik/ tin /tin/ teeth /ti:8/ dead /ded/ tick /tik/ deem /di:m/ dell /del/
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Graphic Equivalents of the /t, d/ Phonemes
/t/ is pronounced when spelt as;
t take /teik/
tt better /'bete/
ed stopped /sbpt/
th Thames /temz/, Thomas /ibmss/, Thomson
/ifomsn/, Anthony /laentsni/, Esther/lesta/
/t/ is not pronounced: (1) in the following words:
often /b:fn, /, Christmas /iknsmas/, boatswain /ibsusn/, soften //, bankruptcy bk/, chestnut /itJesnAt/
(2) in words ending in -stle, -sten:
listen /ilisn/, hasten /'heisn/, castle /ikasl/ , ostler /'usla/
(3) in French borrowings:
restaurant /irestro:rj/, mortgage /1:1/, , trait /trei, treit/, bouquet /ibukei/
/d/ is pronounced when spelt as:
d do /du:/
dd add /sed/
ed begged /begd/
ddh buddhism /'budizm/
/d/ is not pronounced in the following words:
handkerchief /ihsenkatjif/ , handsome , Guildford /tgilfsd/, Windsor
/, g/
I. // is voiceless fortis, /g/ is voiced lenis;1
II. lingual, backlingual velar the back part of the tongue is pres
sed against the soft palate, or velum;
II. occlusive (plosive, or stop)
(1) noise, (2) unicentral; IV. oral.
The English /k/ is aspirated, see /p/, /t/.
The Russian /k/ is pronounced without aspira-
/ tion: , .
W-._/ The Russian /r/ is fully voiced in initial posi-'M^^Sl ti01}.an{* devoiced almost completely in the final p/if position: , .
S [ The Russian/', 7 are pronounced with a more
^ (\ advanced position of the tongue, the central part of
^ (\ the tongue is pressed against the juncture of the hard
and soft palate palatalization.
To avoid palatalization of the English /k, g/ it is advisable to do exercises of the following type;
-= keen keel keep
To observe the correct degree of aspiration of /p, t, k/ the following exercises are recommended:
1. Strongest aspiration in initial position, before a long vowel or
a diphthong:
tie, toe, party, taper, coat, tart, patter, cape
2. Less strong aspiration is manifested in the devoicing of /1, r,
w, j/ after /p, t, k/:
pray, proper, creep, try, quick, pleat, crow, clip, clean, queen
3. Less strong aspiration is manifested before a short vowel:
pity, bick, cut
4. Practically no aspiration:
(a) after /s/: stop, spit, score, sport, scope;
(b) in the final position: top, pit, cope, port, coke
Graphic Equivalents of the /k, g/ Phonemes
/k/ is pronounced when spelt:
k keep /ki:p/-, before , , :
can /kaen/, , coat /lout/
, cut /kAt/~
* Since only the first classificatory principle of the consonants /k, g/ i different, principles , III, IV are given for both.
in terminal position:
music /'mjuzik/ ck black /blsek/, lock /bk/ ch in a number of Latin and Greek words:
chemist /'kemist/-, character /'kserskta/,
anchor /'/, scheme /ski:m/, qu quick /kwik/, banquet /'bserjkmt/ cqu acquaintance /a'kwemtsns/ cc account /s'kaunt/ sc sceptic /'skeptik/ x=/ks/ except /ik'sept/, exhibition ^eksi'bijgn/
gh hough /hok/
/k/ is not pronounced:
(1) before n in initial position: knife /naif/
(2) in the following words:
indict /m'dait/, -victuals /'vitlz/ , muscle /'1/
/g/ is pronounced when spelt;
(1) g before a, o, u, before a consonant and in terminal position i
go //, , good /gud/, , game /geim/ , leg /leg/, significant /sig'mfikant/
(2) but also in the words:
get /get/, girl /:1/, gild /gild/,
give /giv/, gig /gig/
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gg egg /eg/
gu guard /gad/
gh ghost /gaust/
x = /gz/ examine /ig'zeemm/,
/g/ is not pronounced:
(1) before n in initial and final positions:
gnat /nset/, feign /fem/, gnaw /no:/ , sign /sain/
(2) when spelt as:
ng singer /'sing/, tongue /Urj/ gm in the Greek words such as:
diaphragm /idaisfrsem/, paradigm /Ipseredaim/
, , phlegm /flem/; ,
but phlegmatic /fleglmaetik/.,t-Ä%j gh high /hai/, sigh /sai/, plough /plau/
, light /lait/
Questions
1. Is it possible to give a detailed description of a sound within the limits of a short definition? 2. What are the ways to learn a consonant? 3. To what classificatory groups do the phonemes /p, b, t, d, k, g/ belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles? 4. What is the difference between the English and the Russian occlusive consonant phonemes from the viewpoint of the tongue and the lips position? 5. What is palatalization? Is it a phonemic feature in English? 6. What is the difference between the English /p, t, k/ phonemes and the Russian /, , / phonemes from the viewpoint of voice-breath distinction? 7. Prove that softness of consonants, in Russian is a phonemic feature. 8. How are the phonemes /p, t, k; b, d, g/ represented in orthography?
Exercises
1. Define the consonant phonemes /p, t, k/.
2. Define the consonant phonemes /b, d, g/.
3. State articulatory differences between the English /p, t, k/ and the Russian
/n, t, /.
4. State articulatory differences between the English /b, d, g/ and the Russian
/, , r/.
*5. Transcribe the words and read them. Observe the degree of aspiration: (a) the strongest, (b) less strong, (c) practically no aspiration.
(a) keep, pieces, teachers, people, purpose, curtain, turned, curly,
car, courts, parts, pause, take, time, ties, tears, cold, total, care, peer
ing;
(b) till, kissed, tin, pity, penny, tell, tennis, Pendelton, campus,
Cambrian, taxi, put, took, cook, currents, colour, pumped, republic,
covered, tons, possible, cost, college, toss;
(c) spent, stay, stone, study, stick, started, splendid, experience,
extensively, basket, cleaning, explain, place, plan, classes, plain, creek,
crept, crop, platform, act, kept, looked
*6. Transcribe these words and read them. Avoid palatalization of consonants before the front and mixed vowels.
/p/ people, pay, permanent; /t/ eating; /k/ camp, kitchen; /b/ billiards; /d/ different, idea; /g/ get, again, girls
/b/ goes
/p/ pieces, repaired, purpose; ft! tears, take, turned; /b/ been, big, bed, back, both; /d/ idea, decided, didn't, day; /g/ get, guessed, girls, going
/p/ picture, period, expect, pair; til fifteen, instead, artist; /k/ keep, basket, vacation, campus; /b/ be, beside, embarrassing; la/ study, depths, days, Daddy; /g/ giggle, gets, girls, go
/p/ pink, experience, penny, pale; /t/ tin, wanted, take-, turned; /k/ drinking, came, candid, curly; /b/ been, beacon, bit, bad, Burton; /d/ condition, nodded, idea; /g/ give, get, girls
/p/ especially, pattern; /t/ still, potatoes, tulip; /k/ keep, occasional, can, occupy; /b/ be, sugar-beet, backbone; /d/ Dee, deer, muddy, dirt; /g/ gives, longest, regular
/p/ appealing, paid, pupils, perfect; /t/ teach, stick, Tuesday, tears; /k/ keep, looking, carriage, cold; /b/ be, obeyed, back, boat; /d/ indeed, dinner, duly, date; /g/ given, guessed, again, ago
/p/ planning, pit, repaid, passenger; /t/ stiff, city, grotesque, turns; /k/ keep, breaking, carriage, cold; /b/ being, best, back, Burlow; /d/ deal, ditties, dear, dead; /g/ getting, gave, go.
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*7. Transcribe these words. Say how the /p, t, k; b, d, g/ sounds are represented in spelling. Point out the letters which represent the mute sounds IP, t, k; b, d, g/.
happy, hiccough, cupboard, pneumonia, lamb, plumber, bomb, Thomas, Christmas, listen, whistle, bouquet, handkerchief, Windsor, chemist, anchor, banquet, except, muscle, ghost, gnaw, sign, tongue, diaphragm, sigh, plough, eight
Occlusive Nasal Sonor ants /m, n, rj/
In the /m, n, g/ phonemes only the second principle of classification is different.
/m/ is labial, bilabial: the lips are slightly pressed together, forming a complete obstruction.
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In! is lingual, forelingual apical, alveolar: the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.
/rj/ is backlingual, velar: the back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum.
All the other principles (I, III, IV) are similar.
I. in the articulation of /m, n, rj/ voice prevails over noise, so they
are sonor ants;
II. see above;
III. /m, n, rj/ are occlusive (plosives, or stops);
IV. /m, n, g/ are nasal: because the soft palate in the articulation of
/m, n, rj/ is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cav
ity.
. The English Im, n/ are longer than the Russian /, / and louder in terminal positions; cf.:
doom /du:m/ // balm /bam/ //
The pronunciation of the English /rj/ presents difficulties for Russian students. There is no similar sound in the Russian language, /rj/ is articulated by the back part of the tongue, which is pressed against the soft palate and thus a complete obstruction is formed for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. It passes out of the nasal cavity. The tip of the tongue and the middle part of the tongue do not participate in the articulation of this sound. To prevent possible mistakes, care should be taken (a) to watch the position of the tip of the tongue, which is to be lowered, (b) to pronounce the final /rj/ as one sound.
Jt is advisable to do the following exercises:
1. kgkgkgkggggrjgrjgrjdndndndn
2. sigggnig 3. sirjsäensog saq
P^Döira sigzsaegzsi>nz,
brigggrjig sigsaerjsionsat)
fflKKWl
4. /o gk/
6m ftrjk sab sAgk Ihserp (ihsegga) raenrsegk 'sirjirjisigkirj
5. /n a.1 6. ingin_aut
sirj sin sAn SAn ibnrjirj_aut
raerjraen idirjig^aut
haeghaend 'nbin' 'sirjig^aut
Graphic Equivalents of the /m, n, n/ Phonemes
/m/ is pronounced when spelt:
m meat /mi:t/ mm summer /'/ mb comb /kaum/ mn autumn /loitam/
/n/ is pronounced when spelt:
n no //
dinner /'dina/
en written /'ntn/
on button /IbAtn/
/n/ is not pronounced in the words:] damn] /daem/, solemn /isulem/;
/rj/ is proijmoufced when spelt: ng long /ltln/, strong /strorj/ nk sink /sink/
ing writing /iraitirj/, reading /'riidirj/ ngue tongue /tArj/
/n/ is pronounced, when ng is immediately followed by a vowel <with the exception of the degrees of comparison of adjectives, where /g/ is pronounced), cf.:
younger /fJAgga/, longer /'bnjs/, singer /'sinja/, but: getting on /igetuj vun/, peering anxiously /'piano ^flkjash/, working in the garden /iwsrkin in gocdn/, coming out /' xaut/
In such combinations, the uvula takes part in the articulation of the sound /rj/.
/ncf/ /9/1
younger 'getting von
longer 'peeringanxiously
singer 'working in the vgarden
'coming kout
In the words: English, England, mingled, hungry the sounds /gg/ are represented in spelling by the letters ng.
Questions
1, Why are the /m, n, r/ phonemes referred to sonor ants? 2. What is the difference between /m, n, r/ from the viewpoint of the active ■organ of speech (II)? 3. What are the ways to teach students the English consonant phoneme /rj/? 4. What is the difference in articulation between the English /m, n/ and the Russian /, /? 5. How are the sounds /m, n, r/ related to orthography?
Exercises
1. Define the sounds /m, n, n/.
2. State the articulatory differences between the English /m, n/ and the Rus
sian /, /.
S. Describe the position of the tongue In the articulation of the English /m, n, q/. 4. Read these words and spell them. Translate them into Russian.
6m 9irj rsen winz wirjz winwig SAn| iteikniteikin sin sirj
*5. Transcribe these words, read and translate them into Russian.
yarnyoung sonsung
thinthing cleancling
give ingiving not thingnothing
drive indriving go ingoing
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come incoming ownowing
1 The practice of such combinations helps to obtain a nasal-fvowel without a plosive.
/~/ //
sane saying break in breaking look in looking
*6. Transcribe these words. Underline /rj/ with a single line, /rjg/ with tw& lines, /g/ with a wavy line.
bring, lungs, England, younger, anything else, nothing of the-kind, willingly, taking it, mingled, sleeping, thing, hungry, fishing, morning, driving on, longer, younger, getting on, spring, seeing a friend off, clasping in both hands
*7. Transcribe these words and use them to explain the /m, n, g/ relation to orthography.
writing, reading, going, gone, when, sung, hungry, sunk, thing, thick, hanger, hanker, rang, rank, comb, autumn, English, mingled
Constructive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Fricatives) /s, z, f, v,
e. a, h, j, 5/
I. /s/ is voiceless fort is, /z/ is voiced lenis;
II. lingual, iorelingual, apical, alveolar: the tip of the tongue rises
to the alveolar ridge, the sides of the tongue form a closure against
the upper side teeth;
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III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a round
narrowing;
IV. oral.
The /s, z/ phonemes are pronounced with a round narrowing or a groove, which is formed with the tip and the blade held close to the alveolar ridge. The sides of the tongue are raised forming a short and narrow groovelike or "round" depression narrowing. The Russian /, / are pronounced with the blade of the tongue close to the upper teeth (round narrowing). The tip of the tongue is passive and lowered (dorsal position).
Graphic Equivalents of the /s, z/ Phonemes
/s/ is pronounced when spelt:
s speak /spkk/
ss pass /pas/ ,
before e, i, y: certainly /'sertnli/, , circle /'S3:kl/, cynik /isinik/
sc scene /si:n/ ( , . .), scissors /isizaz/, scythe /saiö/ (), coalesce /kaualles/, abscess /'sebsis/
,78
seh in the word schism /sizm/, ces in the middle of the word Leicester /'lesta/ tz in quartz /kwo:ts/
/s/ is not pronounced:
(1) in the words:
isle /ail/, island /laibnd/, aisle /ail/, , Grosvenor /igrauvna/
(2) in French borrowings:
corps /:/, chamois /'Jaemi/ /z/ is pronounced when spelt:
z zeal /zi:l/, puzzle /'1/
s if terminal or followed by vowels or voiced consonants:
houses /'hauziz/, husband /'hAzband/, walls /wo:Iz/
, socialism /'saujghzm/
ss in the words:
dessert /diiza;t/, dissolve /diizwlv/, hussar
/hu i zee/, p ossess /' zes/ , scissors /' sizaz/
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If, v/
I. /f/ is voiceless fort is, hi is voiced lenis;
II. labial, labio-dental: the lower lip makes a
light contact -with the upper front teeth;
III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat
narrowing;
IV. oral.
The narrowing between the upper teeth and the lower lip is flat or slit type.
Care should be taken not to devoice /v/ in terminal position. Cf.i
rove /rsuv/ // of /v/ //
Graphic Equivalents of the /f, v/ Phonemes
/f/ is pronounced when spelt:
f fork /fo:k/
ff off /o(:)f/ ,
ph physics /Ifiziks/
pph sapphire /isaefara/
ugh enough /i'nAf/, laugh /lerf/, cough
/fo:f, /, draught /draft/, tough //
, rough //,
/f/ is not pronounced in the words:
halfpenny /11()/, lieutenant Am. /lju:itenant/ and marine /la'tenant/, but: /lefitenant/
/v/ is pronounced when spelt:
v view /vju:/ f of /Dv/, , (preposition) ph nephew /'nevju/, but also /'nefju/, /'sti:vn/
Stephen
/9, S/
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/9/ is voiceless fortis, /Ö/ is voiced lenis;... lingual, forelingual, apical, interdental; III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat or slit narrowing:
the air escapes over the whole surface of the tongue;
'There are no similar sounds in the Russian language. The place of incomplete obstructions is between the tip of the tongue (which may be slightly projected for /6/) and the rear of the upper teeth.
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Energetic articulation oi /ö/ may also be interdental. It is usually post-dental with the tongue position a little behind the front teeth.
There are several mistakes the Russian students make in the articulation of /0, Ö/: they substitute /s, f/ for // and /z, v/ for /5/ and similarly the Russian /, / for // and /, /
1. To avoid ther/f/ for /9/ articulation care should be taken
to observe the position of the lower lip, which should be lowered
from the edge of the upper teeth so that the lower teeth can be
Cupti
2. To avoid the /s/ for /9/ articulation the tip of the tongue
should be slightly projected between the teeth.
3. To avoid the /z/ for /Ö/ articulation observe the second rec
ommendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the
voiced consonant /9/.,,.,.,
4. To avoid the /v/ for /Ö/ articulation observe the first recom
mendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the voiced
consonant /of. n ,.,. nUn
The substitution of /s, f, z, v, t, 1, d/ for /, Ö/ leads to phonological mistakes because they are different phonemes, ü ven below are contrast exercises, which may be helpful for distinguishing between /s, z, t, d/ and /9, Ö/.
/9/ vs. /s/
thicksick mouthmouse thumbsum worthworse
/e/ vs. /t/
thicktick thoughttaught threetree heathheat both-boat fourthfort
/Ö/ vs. /z/ /9/ -vs. /d/
seethesees thenden
lathelaze thoughdough
cl otheclose seet heseed
breathebreeze theredare
otherudder
worthywordy
The exercise given below can be done to improve the pronunciation of /6, ö/ in difficult combinations.
/S/ + /6/ this thing, sixth
/Z/ + /6/ his thumb
/S/ + /3/ pass the
/z/ + /5/ is this
/6/ + /s/ + /5/ Smith's there
/Ö/ + /z/-i-/Ö/ soothes them
Graphic Equivalents of the /6, 5/ Phonemes
/9, ö/ are always spelt th:
thick /6ikA, thin /0in/, there //, with /wi5/ (preposition)
/h/
I. voiceless fortis;
II. glottal;
III. constrictive, noise, unicentral, with a flat narrowing;
IV. oral.
The /h/ phoneme is pronounced when a strong stream of air is passing through the open glottis.
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The articulators are in the position for the following vowel sound. A strong stream of air produces friction both at the glottis and throughout the vocal tract.
The lip and tongue position is that of the following vowel. In phonetic terms, /h/ can be considered a type of voiceless vowel. There are as many allophones of /h/ as there are vowels in English, which follow it,
Russian students often use the backlingual Russian /x/ instead of the glottal /h/. To avoid this mistake it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type;
hill hull hood hall heet
Graphic Equivalents of the /h/ Phoneme
/h/ is pronounced when spelt:
h how /hau/, hill /hil/, hate /heit/ wh who /hu:/, whom /hu:m/
/h/ is not pronounced:
(1) in initial position:
hour /'am/, honest /'onist/, honour /1/, heir /69/, heiress /'/
(2) in medial position:
exhaust /igizorst/, , exhibit /igizibit/, vehicle /'vitikl/■
(3) In the word shepherd /'Jepad/
IU 5/
I. HI voiceless fortis, /3/ voiced lenis;
II. lingual, iorelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, with a strong outer
lip-rounding and protrusion which contributes to the graver
character of the hiss as opposed to the sharper friction of /s, z/;
III. constrictive, noise, bicentral, with a front secondary focus,
with a flat narrowing;
IV. oral.
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In the articulation of the /J\ g/ phonemes the tip and the blade are raised to the teethridge, forming a narrowing with the back of the alveolar ridgeprimary focus. The front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, forming the front secondary focus. The sounds /J, 5/ are soft or slightly palatal- jzed. The Russian/':, ':/ are softer. They are spelt , as in: , .
The Russian /, / are hard sounds. They are produced with a back secondary focus and have the // colouring. To avoid the pronunciation of the Russian /':, ':/ for the English /J1, 5/ it is useful to do a contrast exercise of the following type:
J"i:p Ji:t ' J"i:n 'mesa ' Ji:k
Graphic Equivalents of the /J", 5/ Phonemes
/// is pronounced when spelt:
| g jg/ ss assure /^/ si Asia /leiJV, Persia /1:|/ sion after consonants: pension /'penjty, version /lva;Jn/; ssi session /'se/n/, mission /'mr/n/ |
sh she /Ji:/ sugar /ijuga/ assure /^/
ti ration /iraejn/, notion /'nsujn/ se nausea /', ino:sis/ ci suspicion /sasipijn/ ocean /isuj'n/
sci + a vowel in the middle of a word after the accented syllable: conscience /iktm^ans/, conscientious/ iknnji'enj'ss/ ,
sch schedule /ij*edju:l/ (/iskedju:l/j4/ra.J; ch in French borrowings:
machine /maijirn/, chivalry /'J'rvsln/',
champagne /Jaem'pem/, chaise /Jeiz/-
x = /kJ7 in accented syllables:
luxury /ilAkJari/-, anxious /lEerjkJss/
but in unaccented syllables/gz/:
luxurious /kg'zjuams/, anxiety /sen(g)'zaiati/
,
/5/ is pronounced when spelt:
g regime /rei^v.m/ , rouge /ru:g/
su pleasure /'plega/
si decision /di'sigan/
zi glazier /igleigs/ (more often /igleizis/)
zu azure /isegs/,
ti transition /trsen's^n/;
zh Zhukov /i3uknv/
Questions
1. To what classificatory groups do the /s, z, f, v/ sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classification? 2. Why are the /s, z/ consonants considered to be unicentral with a round narrowing? 3. What is the difference in articulation of the English /s, z/ and the Russian /c, s/? 4. Why are the /i, v/ consonants considered to be unicentral with a flat narrowing? 5. What is the articulatory difference between the English /f, v/ and the Russian //? 6. What are the graphic equivalents of the consonants /s, z, f, v/? 7. To what classificatory groups do the /9, Ö, h, J\ if sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles? 8. Why is it difficult to master the pronunciation of /9, 8/? 9. Why is it difficult to master the pronunciation of /h/? 10. Why do the sounds /J, 5/ belong to the subgroup of bicentral with a front secondary focus? Compare them with the Russian /, , ':, ':/.
11. What are the difficulties in mastering the /J1, 3/ pronunciation?
12. What are the graphic equivalents of the consonants /8,9, h, J\ 3/?
Exercises
1, Define the consonant phonemes Is, z, f, v/.
2. State articulatory and phonemic differences between /s z/, /f v/,
S f/, /z v/.
3. Define the consonant phonemes /9, /.
*4. Read these words, spell them and translate them into Russian.
0m sin 9ik tik hi:0 hi:t mAn8s
9ik sik 6o:t to:t baut Öi eitQ zäun
9o:t so:t 9ri: tri: fo:9 fo:t wiä_stjend
fo:9 b:s si:6 si:z klauBkbuz kteuöz
mau8maus leiöleiz bri:Bbri:z siks0
sAm 6en den des iz 6m
wa:9 W3:s dau Uda 'Ada its 6is
si:6 si:d iwa:5iiw3:di huz 6set
*5. Transcribe these words and read them.
foundthousand foughtthought F i nnsth ings first thirst free three deaf depth
6. State the articulatory differences between /6 s/, /9 t/, /9 f/, /9 z/,
Id v/, /d-d/, /ö 1/.
7. Prove by minimal pairs that /0 s/, /8 t/, /6 z/, /d d/ are dif-
.. fcrent phonemes.
8/ Define the consonant phoneme /h/.
9. State articulatory differences between the English /h/ and the Russian /x/.
10. Read these words. Mind the pronunciation of /h/ as a pure sound of breath,
help, hall, house, here, hand, harm, heard, hold, head, hear, hot, hills, high, whole, he, his, has, him, 'hardship, 'holiday, 'horror, ho'tel, ihuman, 'happy, behind, ihither'to, 'heather, 'handsome, 'hardly, 'horses, 'Henry, 'Holland, 'Hubert, iHelen *U. Transcribe toesej words. Translate them into Russian and read them.
allhall oughthot it hit and hand
earhear is his ill hill arm harm
outhouse oust house as has addshands
artheart addhad air hair
12.' Define the^consonant phonemes /J1, 3/.
13. Describe the bi central position of the tongue in the production of the noise /J, 3/ sounds.
*14. Read these words. Spell them and translate them orally into Russian.
Ji:p Jip;ed Jeiv Jeip Ji:t Aid Jel J"eid.fai fun Juk Jetk Jeim Jam
iilek.Cn (bmpa'tijan 11 'vi3n
ksnidi^n p:g8nai'zei,r9n '1 g'keign
ideh'geijn 'steijn di's^n '
*15. Transcribe these words and read them.
she, sheep, shut, fish, brush, Irish, fishing, special, station, usual, usually, pleasure, shop, sugar, should, flash, British, English, anxious, anxiously, especially, Angelo, occasion, occasional
*16. Transcribe these words. Use them to explain the /s, z, f, v, 8, 9, h, J1, 3A relation to orthography,
pass, certainly, cynic, scythe, Leicester, isle, houses, husband, dessert, hussar, physics, sapphire, enough, draught, lieutenant, neph-ew, Matthew, Galsworthy, exhaust, vehicle, shepherd, sugar, assure, version, notion, social, conscience, chivalry, chaise, regime, pleasure, decision, azure
Constrictive Sonorants (Approximants) /r, j, 1, w/
In the articulation of these consonant phonemes voice prevails over noise, therefore all of them are sonorants. They fall into three groups: median /w, r/, lateral /1/, and palatal /j/.
/r/
I. sonorant;
II. lingual, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar;
III. constrictive, median, unicentral;
IV. oral.
|
The tip of the tongue is curled behind the back slope of the teethridge. This position of the tip of the tongue is called post-alveolar, or cacuminal. If it is curled still further retroflexed position. The air passes out of the mouth cavity through the median line: along the lowered front and the bunched-up back of the tongue, then through the narrowing formed by the tip and the r back slope of the teethridge. This passage is rather wide, so voice prevails over noise and the sound produced is a sonor ant. The main body of the tongue has lateral bunching: the sides of the tongue are in close contact with the back teeth and the palate. (In the/r/ production the tip and the blade oi the tongue are not so tense as in the articulation of the Russian// apical.)
The similar Russian sound /p/ (apical sonorant) is characterized by a different manner of the production of noise: the tip of the tongue vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly forming momentary obstructions against the teethridge. The Russian sound /p/ is rolled, or trilled.
To pronounce /r/ in the proper way care should be taken to hold the tip of the tongue placed in post-alveolar position while breathing the air out of the mouth cavity.
Combinations /r + ai/ are most simple, they should be practised and learnt first: right /rait/, bright /brait/, try /trai/, dry /drai/, grind /gramd/; only after that, other combinations are to be practised.
Graphic Equivalents of the /1/ Phoneme
/r/ is pronounced when spelt:
red /red/
rr merry /'men/
wr write /rait/ rh rhythm //
/r/ is not pronounced at the end of the word and before a vowel:
star /sta/, first /fe:st/, door /do:/, farm /fa:m/
/r/ is pronounced at the end of the word if it is followed by another word with an initial vowel:
before I go /biifo:r__,ai 1/
By analogy this "linking" /r/ intrudes sometimes into the pronunciation of such combinations as:
drama and music, India and Pakistan, law and order, area of agreement
The intrusive /r/ should be avoided.
In the American pronunciation It! is retroflexed, the tip of the tongue is curled further back behind the back slope of the teethridge and the vowels which precede /r/ acquire the It/ colouring. The retroflexed allophone of the /r/ phoneme has the symbol 1< It is pronounced with noticeable lip-rounding and protrusion.
bird /ba:d/ /b3;jd/ firm :/ /fs-.jm/ Lord /b:d/ /lo:jd/
/J/
I. spnorant;
II. lingual: medi -lingual, palatal;
III. constrictive, median, unicentral;
IV. oral.
|
A. C. Gimson calls it a "semi-vowel" because it is pronounced as "a rapid vocalic glide on to a syllabic sound of a greater steady duration." The tongue immediately glides from the position for /jV to that of the following vowel, this second element of the glide is more prominent than the first, e.g. /jes/.
In the articulation of /j/ the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate but not so high as to produce much friction. The tip of the tongue is lowered. The air passes out of the mouth cavity along the central, median part of the tongue, the sides of the tongue are raised.
Care should be taken to avoid much noise and not to make the tongue tense when /j7 is articulated, especially in initial position:
yes, yield, yard, you, youth, yawn, yellow
1 Gimson A. C. Op. cit, P. 207.
'"The Russian is pronounced with more friction, which is the result of the higher position of the front part of the tongue to the hard palate.
Graphic Equivalents of the (\[ Phoneme
/j/ is pronounced when spelt:
yes /jes/, yield /ji:Id/, yeast /ji:st/~ i opinion /a'pmjsn/', onion /'/, familiar '-
lja/ u in initial position:
union /'ju:nj3n/, unite /ju:'nait/, use /]u:s/, usual /1]':1/ in medial position:
duty /'dju:ti/, mute /mju:t/ eu in initial position:
euphony /i ju:fsni/ in. medial position:
neuter /!nju:t3/, feud /fju:d/ ue rescue /'reskju:/, due /dju:/ ewe ewe /ju:/, ewer /!ju:9/ eur Europe /iju:9rap/
eau beauty /'bju:ti/, beautician /bjui'tij'sn/ ew, iew in medial and final positions:
few /fju:/, new /nju:/, dew /dju:/, news /nju:z/, sewage /'sju:i<33/ , view /vju:/
/w/
I. sonorant.1 Like /j/, /w/ is pronounced with a glide onto another
vowel of greater prominence;
II. labial, bilabial, the tongue begins to move from an /u/-like
vowel with strongly rounded lips;
|
III. constructive, bicentral, velar, median
with a round narrowing;
IV. oral.
This sound is bicentral. The first, or primary, focus is formed by the lips which are protruded and rounded. The second, or back secondary focus is formed by the back part of the tongue which is raised to the soft palate (velum). The flow of air passes out of the mouth cavity without any audible friction along the median line of the tongue, its sides being raised, and through the round narrowing formed by the protruded lips, which instantaneously part, The vocal cords vibrate.
There is no similar sound in the system of Russian consonants.
1 A. C. Gimson terms it a "semi-vowel" as well as /j/.
There is"Vdanger of confusing /w/ with /v/. This mistake is phonemic, because bilabial vs. Iabio-dental articulatory features in these two phonemes serve to differentiate the meaning of the words, e.g.
whale veil west vest
;
wine vine worse verse
Graphic Equivalents of the /w/ Phoneme
/w/ is pronounced when spelt:
w sweet /swi:t/
wh why /wai/, what /wiat/, which /\ut|Y
qu quite /kwait/, square /skwes/
su persuade /ps'sweid/
And also in the words:
one /wah/, once /WAns/, choir /kwaia/
/w/ is not pronounced:
(1) when followed by r:
write /rait/, wrong /rug/;
(2) in the words:
who /hu:/, whose /hu:z/, , whom /hu:m/, whole /haul/, towards /to:dz, ta'woidz/ , two /tu:/, twopence /iUp(3)ns/ , answer /lanss/ , sword /so:d/:
(3) in the geographical names ending in -wich, -wick:
Greenwich /'grmicfe/, Chiswick /itfizik/
N
I. sonorant;
II. lingual, forelingual apical, alveolar: the tip and the blade are
slightly pressed against the alveolar ridge;
III. constrictive, lateral, bicentral, front secondary focus [1], back
secondary focus [I];
IV. oral.
There are two positional allophones of the /1/ phoneme in English: one is the "clear", or "soft" [1], it is pronounced with the front secondary focus; the other- variant of the /1/ phoneme is the "dark" [1], it is pronounced with the back secondary focus, i.e. the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum in a concave shape, it gives a back-central vowel type resonance to /1/.
back secondary focus
front secondary focus
The soft [1] is pronounced before vowels and /j/, the dark [I] is pronounced in word final position and before consonants.
In m
leap, lean, flee, Lewis bill, hill, mill, well, cold
In the articulation of the /1/ phoneme the tip with the blade of the tongue is pressed against the teethridge to form an obstruction. The air escapes rather freely along the sides of the tongue, which are lowered (usually only one side of the tongue is lowered) (lateral articulation).
The English soft [1] is not so soft as the Russian /7 (in the articulation of the Russian /7 the front part of the tongue is raised still higher to the hard palate). To avoid extra palatalization in the articulation of the English soft 111 the following contrast exercises are recommended:
/left/ /les/ /Uih/
/lip/, /H:p/ /luk/
// /let/
The Russian soft and hard /, 7 are separate phonemes, because each of them serves to differentiate the meaning or words:
Graphic Equivalents of the /I/ Phoneme
/1/ is pronounced when spelt:
I lay /lei/
II well /wel/, ;
/1/ is not pronounced in the following words:
would /wud/, , should /Jud/ (past of shall), talk /to:k/, walk/wo:k/, folk/fsuk/, balm /bam/ , calm /kcum/, calf /ka:f/, half /ha-f/, almond /lamand/, salmon /'sseman/
Questions
1. To what classificatory groups do the /r, j, 1, w/ sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classification? 2. Why are the /r, w/ sounds Jconsidered median, /1, II lateral, /j/ palatal? 3. What are the articulatory differences between the
89
English /r, j, 1, 1, w/ ana the Russian /p, , , /? 4, What are the phonemic differences between the English /1, \l and the Russian /, '/?
5. Why do the sounds II, w/ belong to the subgroup of bicentral with
a back secondary focus? 6. What are the ways to avoid mistakes the
Russian students make in mastering the/r, j, 1, w/ pronunciation?
7. How are the English constrictive sonorants related to orthography?
Exercises
1. Define the sonorants /r, j, I, w/.
*2. Read these words. Spell them. Underline the devoiced allophones of the hi phoneme.
rait, raid, raip, krai, "kraisis, prais, grei, bred, ri:d, ri:p, 'rhzn, rl:tf, ndg, risk, frend, frans, rig, rod, rsen, rsen, rot, run, greit, trai, ru-.l, ru:f, ru:ra, red, rest, iredi, pres, pn'zent, raej, rag, 'trhzn, intn, reu, raud, 'preznt
*3. Transcribe these words and read them.
rates, red, room, roast, round, rose, record, regular, railway, running, really, Mary, married, friends, Crusoe, drive, prices, true, drowned, dressing, worry, forehead, hundred, temperature, carried, period, borrowed, currents, different, fever, comfort, heather, world, America, cigarette, modern, matter, mother, were, weary, scenery, curly, coloured, never, for, story, figure, work, doors, part, four, car
4. Read these sentences. Mind the linking hi in terminal position before a vowel which begins a new word.
1. Hotels are expensive in the South. 2. You can see Moscow grow before your eyes. 3. There is a theatre and a bar in the building of the new hotel. 4. There are hostels all over the place. 5. The weather gets nicer and nicer. 6. There are a number of small islands on thenv-er. 7. There are more sheep in Wales than anywhere in the British Isles. 8. In Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens you forget that you are in a big city. 9. Americans are a sociable people they say. 10. The local newspapers were |a surprise to me.
*5. Transcribe these words. Read them. Mind the /j/ articulation.
young, youth, your, year, yet, yesterday, used to, news, human, museum, suit, few, reviews, used, capsules
6. Read these words. Observe the light [i] before front, mixed and back vowels.
large, lots, look, luck, low, o'clock, looking, absolutely, flushed, following, lost, along, kilometer, fellow, slums, clean, let, late, gladly, realize, lived, letter, plain, blank, learned, willing, left, place, landed, linked, glorious, lovely, lonely, clasp, long, looked, London, clothes, glass, longer, applause, broom
7. Read these words. Observe the dark [1J in terminal..position and before^a
consonant (not /j/).
jelp, meals, adult, cold, miles, old, world, rebuilt, will, special, restful, still, rule, wild, twelve, deal, I'll, chuckle, helps, bald, bold
8. Underline the letters, which represent in spelling the dark [i] with one line and the light [1] with two lines in the words given below.
felt, hills, always, least, holiday, letter, plans, like, soil, total, gentle, little, left, explain, slack, coloured, light-headed, small, people, hostel, sleep, believe, lit, reply, model, hotel, article, lasted, longer, looked, lunch, will, special, restful, laughed, long, low, smile, nearly, usual, led, final, place, deal, clapping, fell, loudest
*9, State the articulatory differences between the English and the Russian sounds,
M /p/
■ ■ I'll // [1] // [ -M7
/w///
*10. Give some examples to prove that the Russian //, / are separate phonemes and the English [Ij, [I] are allophones of one and the same phoneme.
*11. What can you prove by the examples given below?
whenvan worseverse went vent westvest week Vi wearyvery
*12. Transcribe these words. Use them to explain how the It, j, 1, w/ sounds are related to orthography.
yes, opinion, onion, unite, mute, neuter, Europe, sewage, would, talk, folk, balm, Lincoln, which, once, choir, whose, towards, sword
Occlusive-Constrfctive Noise Phonemes (Affricates) /tf, d$f
I. /t|7 voiceless fortis, /63/ voiced lenis;
II. lingual, fore- and raediolingual, apical, palato-alveolar;
III. 
occlusive-constrictive (affricates) bicentral
(front secondary focus) with a flat narrowing;
IV. oral.
From the articulatory point of view /tf, dg/ are indivisible clusters of two sounds: /t/ + / f/ = /tf/;
+ /3/ /3
/tr, ds/ are bicentral. The first, or primary, focus is formed by the tip and the blade of the tongue, touching the back part of the teethridge; the contact is relatively slowly released into friction.1 The second, or front secondary focus is formed by the front part of the tongue, which is raised to the hard palate.
There are two affricates in the system of Russian consonants /7 and //. The English /tf/ and the Russian K/ fare almost similar, but in the Russian /7 articulation the front part of the
1 "The friction present in the affricate is of shorter duration, than that which characterizes the fricative proper." (Gimson A. C. Op. cit. P. 166.)
tongue is raised higher to the hard palate, than in /tf/ articta-taffon. The Russian /1/ is softer than the English /tf/.
In order to avoid /tj1, d.5/ confusion the following exercise is recommended:
catches cadges riches ridges lunch lunge beseech besiege
There is no sound in the Russian language similar to /1, but where the Russian /7 is voiced under the influence of the following voiced consonants /, , , s, / we hear a sound similar to M5/:
Care should be taken to pronounce both parts of the affricate /d5/ simultaneously. Cf.:
/dgrcn/ John /dgaek/ Jack /eisern/ Jane-
The Russian // is one more affricate, which can be defined as* occlusive, noise, forelingual, dorsal, dental, voiceless. The English /ts/ is a cluster of two consonants/t/ + /s/, e.g. cats /kgets/.
/tf/ is pronounced when spelt:
ch child /tfaild/
ich kitchen /ikitfsn/
tu nature /'neitfa/
ii question /ikwestfsn/
te righteous /'raitfss/
Also in the word mischief /imistfif/.
/ds/ is pronounced when spelt;
J joy /1/
g before e, i, in French and Latin borrowings: giant /idJjarant/, gem /dgem/ , gyps-/d3ips/
ge, gi in the middle of the word in an accented syllable, between the vowel sounds:
advantageous /isedvcmiteidgas/, legion /ilüdsan/ ge at the end of words:
large /lads/, singe /sincfe/, , but rouge /ru:g/
dg budget /ibAdgit/, knowledge /11%/ du verdure /'vaidgs/ de grandeur /fgraanclsa/, di soldier /'/
ch Greenwich /igrmids/, sandwich /1ssenwidg/,
M
Questions
1. To what classificatory groups do the /tj1, dg/ phonemes belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classification? 2. Why are the /tf, dg/ sounds considered to be affricates? 3. What is the articulatory difference between the English /tj\ dg/ and the Russian /', /? 4. Is the presence of voice in /<%/ a phonemic feature? 5. What are the articulatory difficulties in the /tj1, dg/ production? 6. How are the consonants /tj", dj/ related to orthography?1
Exercises
I. Define the affricates /tf, cfc/.
*2. State the acoustic, articulatory and phonemic differences between , d*/' and /tr, dr, ts, tz, 0, da/.
"3. Read these words. Spell them and translate them into Russian orally.
tfin ifama if up dgim peids djem
tfek tfarid wutj1 dgra tfeindg :<%
fes ntf tfoik id3imi ^em 'dgaimsni
fern inAtf kauf eid3 deek dgu:n
*4. Transcribe these words and read them.
cheap, cheek, chief, chin, channel, gentle, gently, germs, stranger,, middle-aged, rich, which, such, much, lunch, watch, age, page, large, college, cottage, sandwiches, Manchester, manufacturers, enjoyment, arrangement, engagement, detached, temperature, natural
5. Explain the articulatory differences (a) between the English /tf/ and the-Russian AiV; (b) between the English /dj/ and similar Russian comb -ti'ons.
*6. Transcribe these words. Use them to explain how the /tf, (I3/ sounds are related to orthography.
child, nature, question, righteous, mischief, joy, gem, gyps, advantageous, legion, budget, knowledge, grandeur, soldier, Greenwich'
SUBSIDIARY VARIANTS OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES
Allophonic variants of consonants should be analysed from the viewpoint of CV, VC, CC connections. There are some rules to this effect that can be formulated in the following way.
1. In initial prevocalic position the number of allophones of con
sonant phonemes is adequate to the number of vowels that follow
them.
2. Voiced consonants in initial position are gradually voiced
(strong end, weak beginning).
3. In terminal post-vocalic position the number of allophones-
is adequate to the number of vowels that precede them.
4. Voiced consonants in terminal position are gradually devoiced*
(weak end, strong beginning).
93;
5. In medial position voiced consonants are fully voiced.
6. Consonants are shorter in initial position than in terminal po
sition.
7. Similar voiced consonants are shorter before voiceless, longer
before voiced and the longest in free terminal position.
8. In CC transition plosive consonants may lose their plosion or
its character may be modified: loss of plosion, nasal, lateral plosion.
9. In CC transition constrictive consonants may be pronounced
with terminated constriction under the influence of the following
consonant.
10. Plosive constrictives and affricates may be modified by the
influence of nasal /m, n/, palato-alveolar /j/, interdental /0, 5/, post-
alveolar /r/, bilabial /w/, etc.
Given below are the most important allophonic variants of English consonant phonemes.
Phonemes /p, t, k, b, d, g, if, d$/ occur in all positions.
1. Aspirated: pass, picture, Peter. Aspiration may also be heard in
final position: top.
2. Modified by the following vowel: pea, pit, pet, pat, palm, pot,
paw, pun, put, pool, purr, parade, pay, pie, pound, poach, peer, pore,
poor.
3. Modified by the preceding vowel: Up, leap, step, clap, harp,
hip, thorp, stoop, up, chirp, wallop, tape, type, hope, sharp.
4. No release: supped, what place.
5. Release partly lost: spleen, splendid, helps, step, hop, top.
6. Lateral release: people, couple, apple.
7. Nasal release: open, happen,
8. Modified by /j/ palatalized: pewter;
/r/ post-alveolar: price, surprise, press; /9/ dental: depth; /w/ labialized: Pueblo.
Generally preglottalized [?p] when syllable final before consonants top, spin.
/b/
1. Modified by the following vowel: bit, bet, bad, bar, box, bought,
but, book, boot, burr, banana, bay, by, bow, boy, beer, boor, bore.
2. Modified by the preceding vowel: grebe, nib, ebb, cab, garb, mob,
orb, tube, tub, verb, hubbub, babe, imbibe, globe.
3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: labour.
4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: balm, bee, bet;
(b) finally: ebb, nib, cab.
5. No release: rubbed, sob bitterly, ebbed, stabbed.
6. Lateral release: able, table, bible.
7. Nasal release: ribbon, stubborn.
8. Modified by /j/ palatalized: beauty;
It I post-alveolar: bright; /1/ released laterally: blight; /w/ labialized: Buenos Aires.
N
1. Aspirated: table, time, Tim. Aspiration may also be heard in
the final position, e.g. rat.
2. Modified by the following vowel: tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore,
tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, toy, tow, tear, tour.
3. Modified by the preceding vowel: eat, it, ate, at, art, hot, ought,
hut, hurt, put, host, but, eight, write, rout, wrote, adroit, licentiate.
4. No release: stop talking.
5. Release partly lost: strong, straw, eats, hoots.
6. Lateral release: bottle, little.
7. Nasal release: written, beaten.
8. Modified by /j7 palatalized: tube, tuition;
/w/ labialized: twice, twenty, /r/ post-alveolar: try, tree, actress; 1 dental: at the; /9/ dental: breadth.
Generally preglottalized [?p] when syllable final, before consonants, e.g. hat, trick.
In colloquial speech /f/ may be reduced to /tj/. Intervocalic /t/ is frequently realised as a brief voiceless tap, e.g. better.
W
1. Modified by the following vowel: deep, did, dead, dad, darnf
dog, door, duck, do, dirt, domination, day, die, down, daily, dome, dear,
dare, dour, door.
2. Modified by the preceding vowel: deed, did, dead, dad, hard, odd,
horde, hood, brood, bud, bird, had, made, ride, crowd, annoyed, rodet
beard, spared, bored, gourd.
3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: udder, ready.
4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: do, done, down;
(b) finally*, hard, hood, mid.
5. No release: good day, what day, walk down.
6. Lateral release: middle, beadle.
7. Nasal release: garden.
8. Modified by /j7 palatalized: duty;
It! post-alveolar: dry, dress, 1 dental: read those books. In colloquial speech /dj/ may be reduced to /d.3/.
N
1. Aspirated: Kate, kit, come; aspiration may also be heard in the
final position, e.g. rock.
2. Modified by the following vowel: key, kin,kept, cap, car, cot,
core, cup, cook, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care, kur-saal, cord.
3. Modified by the preceding vowel: beak, pick, wreck, back, dark,
lock, fork, book, duke, duck, quirk, bulwark, take, like, hoik, oak.
4. No release: picked, pecked, liked, act, cook clean, took Kate.
5. Release partly lost: sky, school.
6. Lateral release: tickle, vocal, cycle.
7. Nasal release: taken, bacon, thicken.
8. Modified by /j7 palatalized: cute;
/w/ labialized: quake, quag, quaf
