jugbug ledlaid layHe
judgebudge menmain saysigh
birch-bird singesinned
keencoin tryTroy baysbuys liedLloyd
burnbone forkfolk fawnphone furfoe girlgoal
readreared leadleered daydeer payspeers pacepierce
penpain edgeage
lawlow sawso gnawno pausepose
pearlpole pursedpost curtcoat perchpoach cursedcoast
redrared veryvary bedbared pierpair deariedairy
bayby daysdies
roarsrose awedode calledcold torntone
barredbowed Karlcowl partpout artout nonow
dodoer pearpoor mymire writeriot boweredb owed
2. Read these words. Pay attention to the allophonic difference of one and the same phoneme.
/t/
aspirated: take, tall, tone
unaspirated: steak, stall, stone
no audible release: outpost, halfpin, football, white chalk
nasal release: cotton, button, eaten, utmost
lateral release: cattle, atlas, at last
partly devoiced: do, dog, day
voiced: leader, order, murder
voiceless: bid, mad, road
no audible release: good dog, bed time, good cheese
nasal release: admit, road map, red map
lateral release: middle, headless, badly, good luck
ft/
aspirated: come, car, coal unaspirated: baker, talking, equal, secret
no audible release: locked, deck chair, blackboard, dark night, black Imagic, begged
lateral release: glow, bugle, struggle voiceless: dog, leg, vague partly devoiced: go, geese, girt, glass voiced; figure, eager, ago, begin
f.5
3, Read these words. Pay attention to the positional allophones of the /1/ pho-
neme.
likelip liveUly |
pull-mill foolhall
lessleak dollgirl letlist coaltwelve
4. Read these words. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the de voiced allophones of the /1, w, r/ phonemes after /p, t, k/.
cleft twice
cleg tweed
ply quiet
please quaver
clerk queer
play
try tree
pry
price
cry
crone
crop
plightblight classglass cladglad cleanglean clueglue
5. Read these words. Mind the distributional character of the /h/ phoneme.
Pay attention to the allophones in the syllable initial prevocalic position,
each of them should be considered as a "strong, voiceless onset of the vowel,
which follows it."
|he, hit, help, happy, half, hop, horn, hut, hook, who, her, habitual, hay, high, how, hoist, hoe, hear, hare, houri
6. Read these words. Pay attention to the complementary nature of soft and
hard English allophones and to the independent soft and hard Russian pho
nemes.
/p/ pea paw /b/ bee bark /t/ tea talk /d/ deepdope
/k/ key car /g/ geese goose /t(7 cheesechosej /dg/ jet jar
far fee /v/ veel vote /9/ themethumb /5/ thee those;
/r/ readrode
/s/ seesaw
// jupeJoe /h/ hehome /1/ leelaw |
/z/ zealzone /j/ yesyoung /Jf/ sheshoe /w/ wewet /m/ memet /n/ kneenet
// /7 // /67 // /7
1 Gimson , ,
/7 | // | |
// | /1/ | |
/7 | // | |
// | /7 | |
N | // | |
// | /' | |
Op. cit__ . | 1S6. |
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// /7 // /7 // /7
// /1/ Ը // // /1/ // /'/ // ] // /7 // /7
Control Tasks
1. Give examples to prove that the following features of the English consonants and vowels are distinctive,
oralitynasality 'plosivenessconstrictiveness labial-
voicelessnessvoicedness ' ity
tensenesslaxness frontnessbackness
*2. Give examples of combinatory allophones of the /r/ phoneme.
*3. What positional aflophones occur as a result of palatalization in the Russian language?
*4. Give examples for 'different types of distribution: (a) complementary, (fa) contrast!ve, (c) free variation.
5. Give examples of: (a) single opposition, (b) double opposition, (c) multiple
Opposition.
6. Give theoretical and practical proofs to explain constitutive, recognitive
and distinctive functions of phonemes.
7. Match the words below to obtain minimal pairs.
catch, pip, cheap, sap, he, jail, lap, pair, say, sink, rip, fail, lass, Sam, mink, cap, tear, she, lay, heap, match
ENGLISH CONSONANTS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes. As has been pointed out the main method of establishing phonemes of a given language is the commutation test or discovery of minimal pairs through which the establishment of the phonemic status of each sound is accomplished.
When in a contrastive pair one consonan;pnoneme is opposed to any other consonant phoneme in at least one position, this pair is called minimal,1 For example, in the minimal pair pen Ben the phoneme /p/ is opposed to the phoneme /b/ due to the presence and absence of voice; it is the only distinctive feature of this minimal pair. All the other features of the pair pen Ben are irrelevant. If there are more than one distinctive feature in a pair, it is called sub-minimal. For example, the pair treasure pressure is sub-minimal because the opposition is due to: (1) the presence and absence of voice in the /g J/ phonemes, (2) forelingual articulation of the /t/ phoneme and bilabial articulation of the /p/ phoneme. All the other fea-
1 "Minimal pairs are useful, when found, but not necessarily to be expected, and not essential to the work of analysis." 'ßteason H, A. Op. cit. P. 280.)
tures are distinctively irrelevant. Minimal pairs occur in identical, sub-minimal in similar environments.
It should be borne in mind that distinctively irrelevant features can be of two types: incidental, which may or may not be present in a phoneme, and such, without which the phoneme can't exist at all. For example, the presence or absence of voice in the word final consonants /, / in the Russian is a 'genuinely incidental or redundant feature, whereas the forelingual articulation of /t/ and the bilabial articulation of /p/ are relevant differentiatory features. Palatalization is phonemically irrelevant, incidental in English and relevant in Russian, etc.
The phonological analysis of the system of English consonant phonemes helps to establish 24 phonemes:
/p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, 9, 3, s, z, J\ 5. h, tj, 65, m, n, n, wt r, j, 1, a1/
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Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of consonants of the English language.
I. Work of the Vocal Cords and the Force of Exhalation
Voiceless fort is vst voiced lenis
/pb/ penBen /td/ tenden /kg/ coatgoat
Voiceless voiced opposition is simultaneously based on for-tis lenis distinction. It is not so in the Russian language where the voiceless voiced opposition is based only on the presence or absence of voice. If we compare the English /p, t, k, b, d, g/ and the Russian In, , , , , /, we may state that: in the initial position the English /b, d, g/ are weakly voiced, the Russian /, , / are fully voiced:
book goose deem
In English /p, t, k/ in the initial position are aspirated fort is, in Russian /, , / are unaspirated, therefore in English the /p b, t d, k g/ oppositions are based on breath-force distinction, whereas in Russian, the pairs /n , , / differ due to voice absence of voice distinction (but not in the final position).
in English
(pleadbleed tip dip comegum peachbeach tea Dee cot got pat bat teardear canegain
1 /a/ is a "facultative phoneme". Some authors prove its phonemic status
by minimal pairs: witch which, wine whine, wear____ where.
in Russian
2. Active Organ of Speech and the Place of Articulation
This principle of consonant classification provides the basts for the following distinctive oppositions:
(1) Labial vs. lingual
pain cane bun ton fame tame
In these pairs the labial bilabial /p/ is opposed to the lingual back-Hngual velar /k/; the labial bilabial /b/ is opposed to the lingual fore-lingual apical HI; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the lingual forelingual apical /t/.
(2) Lingual vs. pharyngat (glottal)
Tim him this hiss foam home care hair
In these pairs the lingual forelingual apical /t/ is opposed to the pharyngal /hi; the lingual forelingual apical interdental 1 is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the labial labio-dental /f/ is opposed to the pharyngal /h/; the lingual backlingual velar Ikl is opposed to the pharyngal /h/.
Within the group of labial, bilabial may be opposed to labiodental.
wear fair mice vice
In these pairs the bilabial /w/ is opposed to the labio-dental HI; the bilabial /m/ is opposed to the labio-dental /v/.
Within the group of forelingual, apical may be opposed to cacuminal.
dim rim
In this pair the apical forelingual alveolar /d/ is opposed to the cacuminal forelingual alveolar /r/.
Within the group of lingual, forelingual can be opposed to medio-lingual.
tongue young jet yet
In these pairs the forelingual (apical alveolar) /t/ is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) 1)1]
the forelingual (apical palato-alveolar) l&$l is opposed to the mediolingual (palatal) /j/.
3. Manner of the Production of Noise
This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: (1) Occlusive (stops) vs. constictive
pinefine Bernfern dare share bat that borethaw bee thee carethere minet hine ca melame
In these pairs the occlusive /p, b, d, k, ml are opposed to the constrictive /f, J1, S, 9, 1/. (2) Constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive (affricates)
fare chair fail jail work jerk
In these pairs the constrictive /f, w/ are opposed to the occlusive-constrictive (affricates) /tf, dg/.
"Within the groups of occlusives, or stops, and constrictives, noise consonants may be opposed to sonorants.
(a) occlusive: noise vs. nasal somrants
pinemine boat moat talenail deadneed kickking
In these pairs the occlusive noise /p, b, t, d, k/ are opposed to the nasal sonorants /m, n, rj/.
(b) constrictive: noise vs. sonorants
same lame vain lane then when
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In these pairs the constrictive noise consonants /s, v, ö/ are opposed to the constrictive sonor ants /1, w/.
Unicentral constrictive consonants may be opposed to bicentral consrictive consonants.
(c) constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral
same shame thine wine
In these pairs the constrictive unicentral /s, 5/ are opposed to the constrictive bicentral , w/.
Constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing can be opposed to constrictive consonants with a round narrowing.
(d) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing
fame same vat sat
In these pairs the constrictive consonants with a flat narrowing /f, v/ are opposed to the constrictive consonants with a round narrowing /si.
In all these oppositions only examples with the initially opposed consonant phonemes are given. It does not mean that the pairs of medially and finally opposed consonants, that prove their phonemic status, may not be found.