, , ; (in sentences that express the improbable assumptions relating to present or future time)
, , (expressing unrealized assumptions relating to past time).
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| would visit Mary I would call him up | if she was at home now. if he came tomorrow. | |
| I should/would have done it I could have asked him to come | if I had had more time yesterday. if I had seen him last night. |
27. The Subjunctive Mood in complex sentences.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
( ) ( ).
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used in the subordinate clause;
with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
In the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary would and the Indefinite Infinitive.
The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished. (Shaw)
, .
I should kill myself today if I didn't believe that tyranny and injustice must end. (Galsworthy)
, , .
If you helped me, I would finish the work shortly.
An unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be + Infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical Subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should for all the persons. Such sentences are often translated by means of ' ...\ ' ...'.
If I were to offer my home to any one among the young women engaged in my calling, they would probably be accepted. (Dickens)
, , , , . .
If in the subordinate clause the mood auxiliary should is used, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.
If he should come, ask him to wait.
, , .
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used in the subordinate clause;
in the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary would and the Perfect Infinitive.
If I had been at home last night, I would have heard the noise. If I had consulted my own interests, I should never have come here. (Galsworthy)
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There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the condition refers to the past and the consequence refers to the present or future.
. , .
If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would be well now.
, .
In the second type the condition refers to no particular time and the consequence to the past.
, .
If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have mistaken you for your sister.
, .
Unreal conditions may also be expressed in the following ways:
(a) But for the rain, we should go down to the country. , .
(b) If it were not for your help, I should not be able to finish my work in time. , .
In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbs might and could are often used; they fully retain their modal meaning and therefore they do not form the analytical subjunctive.
Here we have the group 'modal verb + Infinitive' which forms a compound verbal modal predicate, whereas the analytical subjunctive forms a simple predicate.
I could have done very well if I had been without the Murd- stones. (Dickens)
, .
Would, when used in the subordinate clause of a sentence of unreal condition, is also a modal verb forming with the infinitive a compound verbal modal predicate.
If you would come and see us..., mother would be as proud of your company as I should be. (Dickens) ..., , .
In conditional sentcnces of real condition naturally the Indicative and not the Subjunctive Mood is used. Such sentences can refer to the present, future or past.
But I can bear anything gladly if you are happy. (Eliot)
If you make this disgusting match, you will never see Hector
again. (Shaw)
The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition are: if, in case, provided, suppose, unless and some others, if is the most common conjunction used in sentences of real and unreal condition.
In case and provided are chiefly used in sentences of real condition.
In case I don't find her at home, I 'll leave her a note. , , I shall go there provided you consent to accompany me.
, .
Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition.
Suppose he wrote to you, would you answer? , , ?
Unless is used in sentences of real and unreal condition.
I 'll come in time unless I am detained at the University.
, .
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Note. Unless has a negative meaning; it corresponds to the Russian . There are cases, however, when the Russian cannot be rendered in English by unless; only if not is possible.
, Cross the street carefully if you don't want to be run over.
Adverbial clauses of condition containing the verbs had, were, could and should are often introduced without any conjunction. In these cases we find inversion.
Had the wanderer remained awake for another half-hour, a strange sight would have met his eyes. (Conan Doyle)
, .
I should be myself were I once again among the heather in those hills. (E. Bronte)
, , , .
Mary would indeed have been grateful to Miss Dunstable, could she have known all that lady did for her. (Trollope)
, , .
Should he come this way, I will speak to him. (Ch. Bronte)
, .
The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences expressing what may be understood as an unreal consequence, the condition of which is not expressed as such. , .
I suppose you are a stranger in these parts, or you would have heard what happened last autumn. (Ch. Bronte)
, , , .
There was no piano... because it would have taken up much room. (Galsworthy)
..., .
28. The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences.
In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms.
In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
(1) to express wish ():
Success attend you! !
God save the Queen! , !
express wish the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may is also used.
May success attend you! !
May you live long and die happy! .
(2)to express an unreal wish:
If only he were free! (Galsworthy) !
(3)in oaths and imprecations ( ):
Manners be hanged! !
Confound these flies! , !
(4)in some expressions:
Suffice it to say that... Be it so! God forbid!
Far be it from me...
The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is characteristic of literary style, except in oaths and imprecations, which belong to low colloquial style.
29. Agreement of the predicate with the subject.
In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number.
Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other.
, .
The house was alive with soft, quick steps and running voices. (Mansfield)
This evening there was no bright sunset; west and east were one cloud (Ch. Bronte)
But in Modern English there is often a conflict between form and meaning; in these cases the predicate does not agree with the subject.
The Durham family were at breakfast, father, mother and seven children. (O'Conor)
"Great Expectations" was written by Dickens in 1860.
He further intimated that the United States was so interested inits own internal affairs that it would not be draw into the question.(Graves)
In Modern English, agreement of the predicate with the subject is restricted to the present tense apart from the verb to be. 䳺 .
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The verb to be is an exception because it agrees with the subject not only in the present but in the past tense as well. ij , , .
I am serious myself.. (Lindsay)
We are men and women who respect ourselves and love our families. (Burke)
And Joseph was there with me. (Abrahams)
All the blinds were pulled down at the hall and rectory. (Thackeray)
Rules of agreement
1. The predicate is used in the plural when there are two or more homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunction and or asyndetically. , , ' . Her father and mother.. were obviously haunted and harassed. (Galsworthy) If two or more homogeneous subjects are expressed by infinitives the predicate is in the singular. 2 , . . To labour in peace, and devote her labour and her life to her poor son,was allthe widow sought. To leave the quiet court, to gain the Strand, to hail a belated hansomwas the work of a moment. 2. When the predicate-verb precedes a number of subjects it is often in the singular, especially if the sentence begins with here or there. -䳺 . . And here was a man, was experience and culture. (Galsworthy) If the subjects are of different number the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. , , . There was much traffic at night and many mules on the roads with boxes of ammunition on each of their pack saddles. (Hemingway) 3. When two homogeneous subjects in the singular are connect by the conjunctions not only.. but (also), neither.. nor, either.. or, or, nor, the predicate is usually in the singular. There was neither heroic swift defeat nor heroic swift victory. (Wells) Not only the anchor of hope, but the footing of fortitude was gone at least for a moment. 4. When two subjects in the singular are connected by the conjunction as well as the predicate is in the singular. Activity as well as cell structure is an essential condition of life. (Young) If the subjects are of different person or number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. The Volga as well as its a ffluents is very picturesque. 5. If a subject expressed by a noun is modified by two or more attributes () connected by and, the predicate is in the singular when one person, thing, or idea is meant. The complete and beautiful quietwas almost the quietfrom beyond the grave. Here a new social and political consciousnesswas in the making.(Abrahams) If 2 or more persons, things, or ideas are meant the predicate is in the plural. The red and the white rose are bothbeautiful. The red and white roses are bothbeautiful. 6. If the subject is expressed by a defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, somebody, someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, neither, etc.), the predicate is in the singular. Everybody was glad to see Martin back. (London) There was something in her silence which- disconcerted him. (Galsworthy) There was nothing to attract attention or excite alarm in this. (Dickens) 7. If the subject is expressed by an interrogative pronoun (who, what) the predicate is usually in the singular. "Who is to apply to her for permission?" I asked. (Collins) If the question refers to more than one person the predicate may be used in the plural. Who were to be the subjects of their piracies was a matter that did not occur to him. (Twain) 8. If the subject is expressed by a relative pronoun (who, which, that ) the predicate agrees with its antecedent(). Mrs. Gowan, who was engaged in needlework, put her work aside in a covered basket, and rose a little hurriedly. (Dickens) Near them were the old people who were watching thedancing. (Abrahams) 9. If the subject is expressed by the emphatic it the predicate is in the singular no matter what follows. IT IS Foreigners say that it is only English girls who can thus be trusted to travel alone. 10. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural which is the title of a book, or the name of a newspaper or magazine, the predicate is usually in the singular. "The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club" was written when Dickens was twenty-four years of age. 11. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural denoting time, measure, or distance, the predicate isin the singular when the noun represents the amount or mass as a whole. Threedollars is the sum laid aside for all other purposes and pleasures. (Dreiser) Twenty-one years is a longish time, lad, but memory is longer and deeper and stronger than time. 12. If the subject is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole (mankind, humanity, etc.) the predicate-verb is in the singular. He consoled himself with the idea that perhaps humanity was better than he thought. If the subject is expressed by a noun of multitude, i. e. a collective noun denoting the individuals of the group taken separately (people , infantry, cavalry, gentry, clergy, police, cattle, poultry, jury, etc.) the predicate-verb is as a rule in the plural. The weather was warm, and the people were sitting at their doors. (Dickens) With collective nouns (family, committee, crew, army, board,chorus, government, party, team, company, band, etc.) as subject the predicate is either in the singular or in the plural; this depends on what is uppermost in the mind, the idea of oneness or plurality. .. the branch committee was meeting in the room of a textile trade union. (Lindsay) The company was then complete, twenty-one in all. (Galsworthy) The Board was again full.. (Galsworthy) The meal over, the party were free to run and play in the meadows. (Ch. Bronte) .. the band was beginning to play a selection from the music of Gried. (Hichens) When we came to the house we found that the band had arrived and were standing about in the hall. 30. Conjunctions and connectives. A conjunction is a word used to join parts of a sentence (clauses) or words within a part of a sentence, e.g. and, but, because, then. You can use conjunctions to join 2 sentences or 2 parts of a sentence. They help you to show the relationship/connection between the two parts of a sentence. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups: simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.). derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.). compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.). Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or. If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy) As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes: coordinating conjunctions; subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d). ֳ (), (), (), (D). He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn't any more; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy) He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson) Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c). (), (), (C). When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte) Connecting words If you want to make connections between words and phrases, you can use other connecting words such as: ALSO EVEN ONLY AS WELL LIKE THAN TOO 31. Simple sentence. Types of classification. 264 A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. , . A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker's attitude to it. , . 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles: according to the purpose of the utterance; according to the structure. ; .
USAGE
CONNECTIVE WORDS
addition of ideas
and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover, in addition, then, of equal importance, equally important, another
time
next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now, subsequently, then, when, soon, thereafter, after a short time, the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length, ultimately, presently
order or sequence
first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on, to begin with, last of all, after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually
space and place
above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right (left), nearby, opposite, on the other side, in the background, directly ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the top, across the hall, at this point, adjacent to
to signal an example
for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as, moreover, furthermore, just as important, similarly, in the same way
results
as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence, consequently, thus, since, therefore, for this reason, because of this
purpose
to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason(s)
comparison
like, in the same manner (way), as so, similarly
contrast connectives
but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, and yet, on the other hand, on the contrary, or, in spite of this, actually, in fact
to summarize or report
in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally, on the whole, therefore, as I have said, in conclusion, as you can see
