. , . , , .
Paramecium aurelia P. caudatum (, 1934*) (Chthamalus Balanus) (Connell, 1961*), , (Lemen, Freeman, 1983; Hairston, 1983*).
, . .
, . Geospiza , , (Lack, 1947; . R. Grant, P. R. Grant, 1982; P. R. Grant, 1986*).
, , , .
, (Muller, 1966; 1970; Whittaker, Feeny, 1971*). , . ( ) (Ovis densis) (Equus asinus) . : , , , (Laycock, 1974; . Monson, Summer, 1980*).
, , (Hairston, 1983*), , , . (Hairston, 1983*) , 67 54 .
(Plethodon jordani) (P. glutinosus). ; . P. jordani P. glutinosus, , . -, P. jordani, , , (Hairston, 1983*).