2011
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24
46
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2011 .,
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. 60x84/16. . .
. .- . .. .-. .. 180 .
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02330/375 29.06.2004 .
212000, . , . , 43
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, 2011
1
, , , , , , .
, . : , , , . , , , . ( ).
1.1 .
, , , , , , .
( ) ( ).
, , . .
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. . : , , . , . , - .
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: , : , , , .
: (, 2 3) (, , , , , ).
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() , .
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, , .
. , Si.
. , , (Si) (). , (IV) SiO2, . , Si . , (IV) , SiO2.
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, . , Na+ Cl-. , NaCl, . , Na+ Cl-. , , NaCl.
1.2
. , , 1,674 × 10-27 , 1,993 × 10-26 .
, . , . 1/12 12 - ( ...).
... = ma(12C)/12 = 19.9272 · 10-27 /12 = 1,66· 10-27 = 1,66 ·10-24
, 1/12 12.
. , .
, , .
( ) , 1/12 12.
r, r relative . Ar(H), Ar(O), Ar(C ) , , .
1.3
(r) , 1/12 12.
, .
, 1/12 12 . , Mr(O2 ) 32. , 32 , 1/12 12C.
. , , (fr).
, 1/12 12.
1.4 .
, , , . . , , , , .
, , , , , 0,012 12.
0,012 , 1 (NA) 6,02 · 1023.
, , , 6,02 × 1023 (, , , .)
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, , . , , H2, H +.
(M).
(m) (n) :
, , . . (r):
= · r
= 1, . . r = 12 ..., 12 ( ), ,
(/) = r.
, , , , .
1.5 . .
() , , - ( ) - .
, , , .
, , , .
, , .
.
KOH + HCl = KCl + H2O; (1)
K+ + OH+ H+ + Cl = K+ + Cl + H2O;
H+ + OH = H2O
.
, () = , :
() = .
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl = CaCl2 + 2H2O (2)
Ca2+ + 2OH + 2H+ + 2Cl = Ca2+ + 2Cl = 2H2O
1/2 , OH Cl.
, (Cl) = Cl; (2+) = 1/22+; () = .
, , , . , 1/2 ()2. , , ½ ()2. .
Zn2+ + 2e = Zn0 (3)
, , 1/2 Zn2+ (Zn2+) = 1/2Zn2+.
Fe3+ + e = Fe2+ (4)
Fe3+ , , ,
Fe3+ + 3e = Fe0 (5)
Fe , , (Fe3+) = 1/3Fe3+.
, , , (f).
(1): f(OH ) = 1; f(OH) = 1.
(2): f(OH ) = 1; f((C2+) = 1/2; f (C()2) = 1/2.
(3) f (Zn2+) = 1/2.
(4) f (Fe ) = 1.
(5) f(Fe ) = 1/3.
, , - , :
f ( ) = .
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, , . , .
.
B .
, H2S f(S) = 1/2, (S) = 1/2; NH - f(N) = 1/3,
(N) = 1/3N; AlCl - f(Al) = 1/3, (Al) = 1/3Al, f(Cl) = 1, (Cl) = Cl.
, , (n(H+)):
, f . ,
H2SO4+ KOH = KHSO4 + H2O (6)
, f(2SO4) = 1, (H2SO4) = H2SO4.
H2SO4 + 2KOH = K2SO4 +2H2O (7)
, . . , f(H2SO4) = 1/2, (H2SO4) = 1/2 H2SO4.
, , (n(OH-):
f . ,
Al(OH)3 + 2HCl = Al(OH)2Cl + 2H2O (8)
, f(Al(OH)3) = 1, (Al(OH)3) = Al(OH)3.
Al(OH)3 + 2HCl = Al(OH)Cl2 + 2H2O (9)
, f(Al(OH)3) = 1/2, (Al(OH)3) = 1/2Al(OH)3.
Al(OH)3 + 3HCl = AlCl3 + 3H2O (10)
, f(Al(OH)3) = 1/3, (Al(OH)3) = 1/3Al(OH)3.
,
n .
, f(Na2SO4) = 1/(1·2) = 1/2; f(Fe2SO4)3) = 1/(2·3) =1/6.
, .
B
NaHSO4 +NaOH = Na2SO4 + H2O (11)
NaOH, , f(NaHSO4) = 1, (NaHSO4) = NaHSO4.
NaHSO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 + NaCl + HCl(12)
, .. f(Cl2) = 1/2 (BaCl2) = 1/2BaCl2, , f(NaHSO4 ) 1/2 (NaHSO4) = 1/2NaHSO4.
Al(OH)Cl2 + HCl = AlCl3 + H2O (13)
HCl, f(Al(OH)Cl2) = 1, (Al(OH)Cl2) = Al(OH)Cl2.
Al(OH)Cl2 + 2NaOH= Al(OH)3 + 2NaCl (14)
Na (f(NaOH) = 1), , f(AlOHCl2) = 1/2, (AlOHCl2) = 1/2 AlOHCl2.
Al(OH)Cl2 + Na3PO4 = AlPO4 + 2NaCl= Na(OH) (15)
Na3PO4(f(Na3PO4) = 1/3), f(AlOHCl2) = 1/3, (AlOHCl2) = 1/3AlOHCl2.
, ,
,
n .
: CaO f(aO) = 1/2, (CaO) = 1/2 CaO;
Na2O f(Na2O) = 1/2, (Na2O) = 1/2Na2O;
Al2O3 f(Al2O3) = 1/6, (Al2O3) = 1/6 Al2O3.
, , .
SO3+ 2NaOH= Na2SO4+ H2O(16) (VI) (f(NaOH) = 1 ), c, f(SO3) = 1/2, (SO3) = 1/2SO3.
Al2O3 + 2NaOH = 2NaAlO2 + H2O (17)
, f(Al2O3) 1/2, (Al2O3) = 1/2 Al2O3.
, , , .
, , .
.
, 1 1/2 . , HCl,H2S, NH3, CH4 , , , 1 Cl, 1/2 S, 1/3 N, 1/4 .
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() .
:
, :
HCl M(Cl) = f(Cl) · M(Cl) = 1· 35.5 /;
NH3 M(N) = f(N) · M(N) = 1/3· 14 = 4.67 /;
H2S (S) = fS) · Ms = 1/2 · 32 = 16 /;
CH4 (C) = f · Mc = 1/4 · 12 = 3 /.
, , , , , , .
, (6) (H2SO4) :
(+) + (HSO4) = f(H+)· M(H+) + f(HSO4) · M(HSO4) = 98 /.
(7) (H2SO4) :
(+) + (SO42) = f(H+) · M(H+) + f(SO42) · M(SO42) = 49 /
(8) (Al(OH)3 ) :
(Al(OH)2+) + M(OH) = f(Al(OH)2+) · M(Al(OH)2+) + f(OH) · M(OH) = 78 /
(9) (Al(OH)3) :
(AlOH2+) + M(OH) = f(Al(OH)2+) · M(AlOH2+) + f(OH) · M(OH) = 39/
(10) (Al(OH)3):
(Al3+) + M(OH) = f(Al3+) · M(Al) + f(OH) · M(OH) = 26 /
(Al2(SO4)3) = f(Al3+) · M(Al) +f(SO42-) · M(SO42-) = 57 /
8 /.
, , . : , , , , , . .
1748 . 1756 . . . 1789 .
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, :
= m· C2
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m ,
c , 299 792 458 /.
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, , . 100 /.
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. (1801 1808) ., , , , , ., , . , . , , . 19121913 . . , , .
, .
, (, NH3, H2O, SO2 . .), , 3 5 % . , , , , .
, (), , , , , , , , .
, , , . , () . , . , . ( ) . , . . FeS. 10 20 % . (II) . TiO (, ) 0,58 1,33. , (II) 0,58 1,00 ( ) . 1,00 1,33 ( ) .
, . .
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, ( , , . .) : . (II) .
2.3
. 1811. , , : ( ) .
: (0 (273 ) 101,3 ) , 22,4 . 6,02× 1023 ( ).
, :
m1 m2 ,
1 2 .
ρ ,
V ,
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-, . , , - , : , .
, 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O . , .
, : () () .
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