1. . 2. . 3. . 4. , , . 5. , . 6. , .
Exercise 8. The answers to the following questions are the summary of the text. Answer these questions and give the summary of the text.
1. What are the functions of the nervous system?
2. Of what tissues is the nervous system made up?
3. What are the animals that have no nervous system?
4. What are the main parts of the nervous system in vertebrates?
5. What is the function of the brain?
6. What does the spinal cord control?
7. What is the peripheral nervous system?
8. What are the two types of neurons of the peripheral nervous system?
9. What is somatic nervous system responsible for?
10. What are the two subsystems of the autonomic nervous system?
11. What are the functions of the somatic nervous system?
12. What does parasympathetic system control?
13. Why does malfunction of the nervous system occur?
14. What branch of medicine studies malfunction of the nervous system?
VOCABULARY LIST TO TEXT B
| acquire v | [əˈkwaɪə(r)] | |
| adaptation n | [ædəpˈteɪʃən] | |
| approach v | [əˈprəʊtʃ] | |
| automatic adj | [ɔːtəˈmætɪk] | |
| blink v | [blɪŋk] | |
| condition n | [kənˈdɪʃn] | |
| conditioned adj | [kənˈdɪʃnd] | |
| constriction n | [kənˈstrɪkʃn] | |
| designate v | [ˈdezɪɡneɪt] | |
| ending n | [ˈendɪŋ] | |
| paw n | [pɔː] | |
| phenomena n pl | [fəˈnɒmɪna] | |
| phenomenon n | [fəˈnɒmɪnən] | |
| prick v | [prɪk] | |
| receptor n | [rɪˈseptər] | |
| response n | [rɪˈspɒns] | |
| salivate v | [ˈsælɪveɪt] | |
| secretion n | [sɪˈkriː.ʃən] | |
| sneeze v | [sniːz] | |
| stimulus (stimuli pl) n | [ˈstɪm.jʊ.ləs] -lai] | () |
| swallow v | [ˈswɒləʊ] | |
| twist v | [twɪst] | |
| unconditioned adj | [ˈʌn kənˈdɪʃnd] |
TEXT B
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REFLEXES
A reflex is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus. When you accidentally touch a hot object and automatically jerk your hand away, this is a reflex action. It happens without you having to think about it. Animals automatically blink when an object approaches the eye and cats twist their bodies in the air when falling so they land on their paws. Swallowing, sneezing, and the constriction of the pupil of the eye in bright light are also reflex actions. These reflexes are called unconditioned or simple reflexes. Unconditioned reflex is automatic instinctive unlearned reaction to a stimulus. The term unconditioned reflex was introduced by I. V. Pavlov to designate reflexes which occur unconditionally under the action of appropriate stimuli on sensory nerve endings (receptors). Examples of unconditioned reflexes include secretion of saliva when food enters the mouth or jerking away the hand when the finger is pricked. The biological role of unconditioned reflexes, which serve as the foundation for the rest of the nervous activity of the organism is adaptation of the animals behavior to the constant, usual conditions of the environment.
In the picture above, you can see the nerve pathway of an unconditioned (or: simple) reflex. When the sensory nerve ending is stimulated, a nerve impulse travels along a sensory (afferent) neuron to the spinal cord. Here an association neuron transfers the impulse to a motor (efferent) neuron. The motor neuron carries the impulse to a muscle, which contracts and moves a body part.
Besides such unconditioned reflexes, there are conditioned or learned reflexes. A conditioned reflex is one acquired as the result of experience. When action is done repeatedly, the nervous system becomes familiar with the situation, learns to react automatically and a new reflex appears. I.V. Pavlov carried out the classic experiment to demonstrate such a reflex when he conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell ringing. While I.V. Pavlov worked on the digestive system, he also studied such phenomena as the secretion of saliva. When a dog is given food, saliva starts to pour from the salivary glands located in the back of its oral cavity. This saliva is needed in order to make the food easier to swallow. I. V. Pavlov became interested in studying reflexes when he saw that the dogs started salivating without food. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab assistants who used to feed them. Every time the dogs were given food, the person who served the food was wearing a white lab coat. Therefore, the dogs salivated (as if food was on its way) whenever they saw a white lab coat. In a series of experiments, Pavlov tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he rang a bell when the dogs were fed. Soon the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After the dogs had learned to associate the provision of food with the sound of a bell, they started salivating at the sound of the bell even when food was not offered. Habit formation and much of learning depend on conditioned reflexes, for example, associative learning, which involves creating relationship between two stimuli. Classical conditioning now is a term used to describe learning that has been acquired through experience not only in animals but in humans as well. Thus, to this day Pavlovs methods provide important guidelines for the basic research on brain mechanisms in learning and memory.
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Exercise 9. Read the situations and decide, what kinds of reflexes are described there. Think of similar situations with conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.
1. A tickle in the nose causes a sneeze.
2. High temperature causes sweating, low temperature causes shivering.
3. Your dog goes to the door when you put on your shoes and a coat.
4. An air puff to the eye causes a blink.
5. Every time you open the fridge, your cat comes to it and starts mewing.
6. Every time you see a lemon, you start salivating.
Exercise 10. Complete the following sentences. Choose the ending according to the text.
1. Swallowing, sneezing, and the constriction of the pupil of the eye in bright light are . 2. Unconditioned reflex is automatic instinctive unlearned reaction to . 3. The term unconditioned reflex was introduced by I. V. Pavlov to designate reflexes, which occur unconditionally under the action of appropriate stimuli on . 4. The biological role of unconditioned reflexes is adaptation of the animals behavior to . 5. I.V. Pavlov carried out his classic experiment when he conditioned dogs . 6. While I.V. Pavlov worked on the digestive system, he also studied such phenomena as . 7. After the dogs had learned to associate the provision of food with the sound of a bell, they started salivating at the sound of the bell even . 8. Classical conditioning now is a term used to describe .
Exercise 11. a) Make up collocations using words from both columns.
| conditioned | mechanisms |
| nerve | glands |
| habit | reflex |
| brain | response |
| automatic | formation |
| salivary | endings |
b) Fill in the gaps with the collocations from above.
1. A reflex is a rapid to a stimulus.
2. When a dog is given food, saliva starts to pour from the located in the back of its oral cavity.
3. To this day Pavlovs methods provide important guidelines for the basic research on in learning and memory.
4. and much of learning depend on conditioned reflexes, for example, associative learning, which involves creating relationship between two stimuli.
5. The term unconditioned reflex was introduced by I. V. Pavlov to designate reflexes which occur unconditionally under the action of appropriate stimuli on sensory (receptors).
6. Besides unconditioned reflex, there is .
Exercise 12. Translate the derivatives. Make up your own sentences with some of these words.
1. To constrict, constriction, constrictor, constricting.
2. To found, foundation, founder, founded.
3. Adapted, adaption, adaptor, adapted.
4. Active, actively, activity, activate.
Exercise 13. Translate into English.
1. . 2. , . 3. . 4. . . , . 5. , .
