SUPERCOMPUTERS
Read the following words and word combinations and use them for understanding and translation of the text:
successive - ,
at a clock speed -
to take advantage of -
entire - ,
the ultimate -
formerly -
to soak up - ,
protein -
cost-effective -
distributed -
to feature - ,
synergistic processing element -
ad hoc - ,
to parcel out - ,
extraterrestrial -
proximity -
mesh - ,
to rank -
high-performance computing -
benchmark - , ,
to retain - .
The term supercomputer is not really an absolute term describing a unique type of computer. Rather it has been used through successive generations of computer design to describe the fastest, most powerful computers available at a given time. However, what makes these machines the fastest is usually their adoption of a new technology or computer architecture that later finds its way into standard computers.
The first supercomputer is generally considered to be the Control Data CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray in 1964. The speed of this machine came from its use of the new faster silicon (rather than germanium) transistors and its ability to run at a clock speed of 10 MHz (a speed that would be achieved by personal computers by the middle 1980s).
Cray then left CDC to form Cray Research. He designed the Cray I in 1976, the first of a highly successful series of supercomputers. The Cray I took advantage of a new technology: integrated circuits, and new architecture: vector processing, in which a single instruction can be applied to an entire series of numbers simultaneously. This innovation marked the use of parallel processing as one of the distinguishing features of supercomputers.
The next generation, the Cray X-MP carried parallelism further by incorporating multiple processors (the successor, Cray Y-MP, had 8 processors which together could perform a billion floating point operations per second (1 gigaflop).
Soon other companies (particularly the Japanese manufactures NEC and Fujitsu) entered the market. The number of processors in supercomputers increased to as many as 1,024, which can exceed 1 trillion floating-point operations per second (1 teraflop)
The ultimate in multiprocessing is the series of Connection Machines built by Thinking Machines Inc. (TMI) and designed by Daniel Hillis. These machines have up to 65,000 very simple processors that run simultaneously and can form connections dynamically, somewhat like the process in the human brain. These massively parallel machines are thus attractive for artificial intelligence research.
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As the power of standard computers continuous to grow, applications that formerly required a multimillion-dollar supercomputer can now run on a desktop workstation.
On the other hand there are always applications that will soak up whatever computing power can be brought to bear on them. These include: analysis of new aircraft designs, weather and climate models, the study of nuclear reactions, and the creation of models for the synthesis of proteins.
For many applications it may be more cost-effective to build systems with numerous coordinated processors (a sort of successor to the 1980s Connection Machine). For example, the Beowolf architecture involves clusters of ordinary PCs coordinated by software running on UNIX or Linux. The use of free software and commodity PCs can make this approach attractive, though application software still has to be rewritten to run on the distributed processors.
A new resource for parallel supercomputing came from an unlikely place: the new generation of cell processors found in game consoles such as the Sony Playstation 3. This architecture features tight integration of a central power processor element with multiple synergistic processing elements.
Finally, an ad hoc supercomputer can be created almost for free, using software that parcels out calculation tasks to thousands of computers participating via the Internet, as with SETI@Home (searching for extraterrestrial radio signals) and Folding@Home (for protein-folding analysis). In another approach, a large number of dedicated processors are placed in close proximity to each other (e.g. in a computer cluster); this saves considerable time moving data around and makes it possible for the processors to work together (rather than on separate tasks), for example in mesh and hypercube architecture.
The Top500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful (non-distributed) computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL, a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in FORTRAN for distributed memory computers.
According to the 42nd edition (November, 2013) of the Top500 list of the worlds most powerful supercomputers, Teanhe-2, a supercomputer developed by Chinas National University of Defense Technology, retained its position as the worlds No.1 system with a performance of 33.86 petaflops/s (quadrillions of calculations per second).
Titan, a Cray XK7 system installed at the Department of Energys (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory, remains the No.2 system. It achieved 17.59 Pflops/s on the Linpack benchmark. Titan is one of the most energy-efficient systems on the list.
Notes:
NEC (Nippon Electric Corporation) - , ,
Fujitsu - ,
SETI@Home (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence at Home ) BOINC,
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LINPACK benchmark - , 500
Assignments
1. Translate the sentences from the text into Russian in writing paying attention to the underlined words and phrases:
1. Rather it has been used through successive generations of computer design to describe the fastest, most powerful computers available at a given time.
2. The Cray I took advantage of a new technology: integrated circuits, and new architecture: vector processing, in which a single instruction can be applied to an entire series of numbers simultaneously.
3. The next generation, the Cray X-MP carried parallelism further by incorporating multiple processors.
4. On the other hand there are always applications that will soak up whatever computing power can be brought to bear on them.
5. Finally, an ad hoc supercomputer can be created almost for free, using software that parcels out calculation tasks to thousands of computers participating via the Internet.
2. Answer the following questions:
1. What does the term supercomputer describe?
2. What is considered to be the first supercomputer?
3. Which innovation marked the use of parallel processing as one of the distinguishing features of supercomputers?
4. Describe resources for parallel supercomputing.
5. What is Top500 project?
3. Translate into English:
. 100 60 000 . . . 1956 .. . 2000 300 . .
-6, 1968 , 1 . .
2008 . , . 100 . ., 30 .
, - . .. ,- . . , .
. - , , - . . , , . - . .
: . , , , . , , .
Topics for essays (you might need additional information):
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Quantum computers versus traditional computers.
Nanotechnology in our lives.
The Internet of things may bring problems.
Tiny biocomputers move closer to reality.
Application of supercomputers.
LITERATURE
1. 3D Computer Graphics by Alan H. Watt, Addison-Wesley, 2000
2. A Brief History of Programming Languages. http://www.byte.com/art/9509/se7/artl9.htm. Cited, March 25, 2000.
- Artificial Intelligence - What You Really Need to Know by Michele Goetz. Jan 30, 2014 http://www.forbes.com/sites/forrester/2014/01/29/artificial-intelligence-what-you-really-need-to-know/
- Artificial Life. Encyclopedia of Science and Religion by Claus Emmeche, New York University Press, 2003. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Artificial_life.aspx
5. Best-Kept Secrets: Quantum Cryptography Has Marched from Theory to Laboratory to Real Products by Stix, Gary. Scientific American, 2005. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID= 000479CD-F58C-11BE-AD0683414B7F0000
6. Biometric Security Technology by P Kumbargoudar, PeterIndia, 2008 www.peterindia.net/BiometricsView.html
- Cognitive Computing Ushers In New Era of IT by Eric W. Brown, IBM Smarter Planet. 2/03/2014. http://www.forbes.com/sites/ibm/2014/02/03/cognitive-computing-ushers-in-new-era-of-it/
8. Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice by James D. Foley, Andries van Dam, Steven K. Feiner and John F. Hughes. Addison-Wesley Professional, 1996.
9. Computer Graphics: Theory into Practice by Jeffrey J. McConnell. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2006.
- Computer Science Illuminated by Nell Dale, John Lewis. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2002
11. Concepts and Terminology for Computer Security by Donald L. Brinkley and Roger R. Schell, 1995
12. Concepts in Programming Languages by John C. Mitchell. Cambridge University Press, 2003
- Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology (Revised edition) by Harry Henderson. Infobase Publishing, 2009
- Flight of the Robobee: the Rise of Swarm Robotics by Tim Smedley. http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/swarm-robotics-conservation-coral-reefs-pollination
15. From ENIAC to Everyone: Talking with J. Presper Eckert by Alexander Randall. http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0645.html
- Fuzzy Logic: . http://www.bacnet.ru/knowledge-base/articles/index.php?ELEMENT_ID=653
17. History of Programming Languages-II by Thomas J. Bergin and Richard G. Gibson. New York: ACM Press, 1996.
18. How Quantum Cryptology Works by Josh Clark. science.howstuffworks.com/.../quantum-cryptology.htm
- http://albatron.ru/27-kompyuter-na-parovoj-tyage-ili-o-tvorenii-britanskix-uchenyx.html
- http://gimn6.ru/article.asp?id_text=60
- http://globalfuturist.com/about-igf/top-ten-trends/top-ten-computer-trends-for-the-21st-century.html
- http://shkolazhizni.ru/archive/0/n-37499/
- http://software-security.sans.org/resources/paper/cissp/overview-tutorial-artificial-intelligence-systems
- http://thinkinnovative.ru/experts/blogs/id/78
- http://www.dataved.ru/2013/01/slang-is-difficult-for-ibm.html
26. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence by Wolfgang Ertel. Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2011
27. Introduction to Information Security by Linda Pesante. Carnegie Mellon University, 2008
28. The Art of Computer Programming: Semi-numerical Algorithms by Donald E. Knuth. Addison-Wesley; 1981
29. Landofcode.com Webhostinggeeks.com Institut fur Theoretische Physik http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/?lang=en
30. Megaspring.ucoz.ru http://www.ozon.ru/context/detail/id/1421843/
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- Operating System Concepts (8th edition) by Silberschats, Galvin, Gagne. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2008
- Organization and Architecture. Designing for Performance by William Stallings. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2010
33. Past, Present, and Future Methods of Cryptography and Data Encryption A Research Review by Nicholas G. McDonald. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Utah
34. Programming Languages. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
35. Quantum Cryptography by Alves, Carolina Moura and Kent Adrian. National University of Singapore. http://www.quantumlah.org/?q=tutorial/quantumcrypto
36. Quantum Cryptography Tutorial Dartmouth College. http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~jford/crypto.html
37. Quantum Cryptography: Privacy through Uncertainty by Salvatore Vittorio. Proquest - CSA - October 2002. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/crypt/overview.php
38. Quantum Programming Languages: Survey and Bibliography by Simon J. Gay. Department of Computing Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK, 2006
39. Security of the Internet by James Ellis, Howard F. Lipson, Thomas A. Longstaff, Linda Pesante, Derek Simmel. NEWS AT SEI, 1998.
40. Tales of the Encrypted by Brodney A, Asher J. http://library.thinkquest.org/28005/flashed/index2.shtml.
41. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing by D. Kahn. Scribner, 1996.
- The ENIAC Story by Martin H. Weik. Ordnance Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD ftp.arl.mil/mike/comphist/eniac-story.html
- to.prabc.ru
- transhumanism-russia.ru
45. Understanding Programming Languages by M. Ben-Ari Weizmann. Institute of Science. Originally published by John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1996.
46. Web Graphics for Dummies by Linda Richards. Wiley/Dummies, 1997.
- What is Artificial Life? http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-artificial-life.htm
- What is Swarm Robotics? http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-swarm-robotics.htm
- www.book.kbsu.ru
- www.ccas.ru
- www.inf1.info/machineneumann
- www.osp.ru
- . , , , , 2008
54. . : . , 91 .. ( ), 2003.
- http://habrahabr.ru/post/46688/
- , 31, , 2008
57. - kriptografea.narod.ru/osnponiatia.html
- ̔ http://info61.blogspot.ru/p/20-1902-3-1974-1953-12.html
59. . habrahabr.ru/post/126144/11 . 2011
CONTENTS
HISTORY OF COMPUTING... 5
PRE-COMPUTER ERA.. 5
EARLY COMPUTERS.. 11
1950s - PRESENT DAY: DECADE BY DECADE GUIDE.. 18
COMPUTING COMPONENTS. THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE. 31
ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION... 31
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS.. 36
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES.. 43
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND PROGRAM LANGUAGE CONCEPTS 51
BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 51
GENERATIONS OF LANGUAGES.. 63
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE APPLICATIONS.. 69
BASIC TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.. 74
LANGUAGE EVALUATION CRITERIA. IMPLEMENTATION METHODS 85
OPERATING SYSTEMS.. 91
DEVELOPMENT.. 93
FUNCTIONS.. 97
EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.. 108
INTERNET.. 117
E-MAIL.. 124
WORLD WIDE WEB.. 128
WEB BROWSER.. 134
WEB PAGE DESIGN... 142
INTERNET PROTOCOLS.. 148
COMPUTER SECURITY AND RISKS.. 154
BASIC COMPUTER SECURITY CONCEPTS.. 154
TYPES OF INCIDENTS.. 159
IMPROVING SECURITY.. 166
BIOMETRIC SECURITY TECHNOLOGY.. 172
CRYPTOGRAPHY AND DATA ENCRYPTION... 181
TERMINOLOGY.. 181
HISTORICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY.. 185
MODERN ENCRYPTION... 193
FUTURE METHODS OF ENCRYPTION... 200
COMPUTER GRAPHICS.. 207
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.. 207
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES.. 212
IMAGE TYPES.. 218
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: OVERVIEW... 225
DEFINITIONS.. 225
APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES.. 231
CURRENT TRENDS.. 239
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: ROBOTICS AND A-LIFE. 246
ROBOTICS.. 246
ARTIFICIAL LIFE.. 256
FUTURE COMPUTING... 267
QUANTUM COMPUTING... 267
BIOINFORMATICS.. 271
NANOTECHNOLOGY.. 277
UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING... 281
SUPERCOMPUTERS.. 285
LITERATURE.. 292