.


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8.

7. .

 

.

1. : . .

2. .

3. . -.

4. . .

 

. , - . ( : , .).

, . . () : , , , .. , . () ( ). , : , . , .. . (liquidity liquid, , ) , , . ( , ), . , , , , . , , . , . .

. : 1) , 2) , 3) ,

4) .

(medium of exchange)

, . . - , . . , - , , , - (transaction costs), , , . , , (double coincidence of wills). , - , , , . . , , , , . , . , , , , , . . , . . - . . , . ( ) .

(unit of account) ,

. , , , () . , , . , , , . , , , , .. . , . , , . , .

- ( , , , ..). , . , , , (, ) (..).

, , . .

(standard of deferred payment - )

( , , ). , , :

- , , , ( , - );

- , , , , , ..

, . .

(store of value),

, . , , , , , , . . , 5 . , .. . , . , . . , , , . , , , . , , , , , .

( , , ., , , ), , , .

, . . , , , , , c , ( ).

. . , , , . : , , , , ( , ), , - , . .

, . . , - . (, ), , , (, , , 1993-94 ).

( ). , : 1) ( , , ); 2) ( ); 3) ( ); 4) ( ); 5) ( ); 6) ( ); 7) ( , , ).

.

. V - V / , , , IV / .

, , . - , , , .

(token money). , ( ) . . , , (fiat money) , . , , : , .

. 1690 . 1 .., , 1769 II. ( ).

, IOY- money (I owe you-money, : ) . : 1) , 2) , 3) .

(bill) - ( )

( ) , , (). , , , , . , , , . .

(banknote) ( ) .

( ) . ( , ) ( , ). , (liabilities) . , , .

(check)

.

,

, . ( - ) , , , .

, ,

: 1) , , , , ; 2) , (); 3) -, , , .

. . . , . : . , : 1, 2, 3 L.

1 (currency) ( , , , 0) (demand deposits), , .

1 = + ( ) +

2 1 (saving deposits), ( $100 000) .

2 = 1 + + .

3 2 ( $100 000) (time deposits).

3 = 2 +

L 3 ( treasury bills)

L = 3 +

( L 0), ( 0 L).

1, ( 1980 ).

:

. , , .. . . (.. ) . .

- (near-money). 1 C (currency), , D (demand deposits), :

= + D

(

), D .

, 2, 3 L ,

1, , -, : ) , ) , ) .

. . ( ) :

MV = PY

M , V , , (1 , 1 , 1 ), P- ( ), Y . PY . , , , (.. ). , , . ( , XVII XVIII . . XIX .).

( ) , , , , . ( ) . (, ), , , , , .

( 10%) :

DM (%) + DV (%) = DP (%) + DY (%)

. , . . , () . (.7-1). , , . ( 1 2) ( Y1 Y2) (.7-1 ()), , , , ( 1 2), (Y*) (.7-1 ()). , , . , , , .

(.7-1 ()). , ( SRAS1 SRAS2) ( Y1 Y2) ( 1 2) ( ). (, , Y1), ( 2 3) ( ), . 1 3.

 

. 7-1.

) ) )

 
 


LRAS SRAS2

3 SRAS1

2 SRAS 2 2

1 AD2 1 1

AD2 AD2

AD1 AD1 AD1

           
     


Y1 Y2 Y Y* Y Y2 Y1 Y

 

 

8.

 

.

1. . .

2. . .

3. . () .

 

. ,

, , (), , .. , , , .. . , . . () . : (, .); ; - ; ; .., .. , .

. banco, (). XVI , ( ) /. , , .

. . .

. ( Federal Reserve System), (Bank of England), Bundesbank, .

, :

- , . ( ) ( );

, . , , , , ;

- , , , , ;

;

- , ).

- () .

. .

. :

, : 1) : ( ), ( - ), ( ); 2) : , , ; 3) : , .

, . : - - .

, : - ; () ; ( ); ; .

(). (, .). , , , , , .. , .

. , , , . .

. , . 100%- . $1000 (D = $1000), ( - liabilities) $1000, () $1000 (R = $1000), ( = $0). :

()
R = $1000 = $ 0 D = $1000

 

100%- . , , . . ( ) ( - , , ), , . ( ) .

 

____________________________________

100% 100%

 

100%- , , . , . , , .

, , ( ). , , 10% . , , , , . . , , .

(reserve ratio - rr) - , ( rr = R/D), , . I - , 20% - - . :

 

()
R = $ 200 = $ 800 D = $ 1000

 

$1000 (D = $1000), , 20%, $200 (R = D × rr = $1000 × 0,2 = $200), $800 ( = D R = $1000 - $200 = $800 = D rr × D = D (1 rr) = $1000 (1 0,2) = $800).

, ( 1914 ), . ( )

(required reserve ratio) , , . , (required reserves R.), (D) (rr):

R . = D × rr

, 1, 0 < rr < 1.

, , , .. ():

= D - R . = D D × rr = D (1 rr)

, , . , , , . (excess reserves - R ). :

R . = R . + R .

, 20%, $1000, $200 (1000 × 0.2 = 200) , $800 (1000 200 = 800) . , , $700. $100 (800 700 = 100) . $300 ($200 + $100 = $300).

( ), (R./D) , . , (.) (. < ) :

. = D - R .

:

 

 

() , . .

:

 

()
( ) ( , -, )

 

. .

. . . , , .. . ( ), .

, :

. , ;

. , , , , , . , , . , :

- . , ;

- , , , , ( ).

, I , $1000, 20%. $200 (R . = D x rr = 1000 0.2 = 200), $800 ( = D × (1 rr) = 1000 × (1 0.2) = 800). ( ), ( , ) $800.

 

I

()
R = $ 200 = $ 800 D = $ 1000

 

( , ), (), () (, II). II, , $800, $160 (800 × 0.2 = 160), $640 (800 × (1 0.2) = 640)

 

II

()
R = $ 160 = $ 640 D = $ 800

 

, () , .. . $640 . $128 (164 × 0.2 = 128), $512 (640 × (1 0.2) = 512).

 

III

()
R = $ 128 = $ 512 D = $ 640

 

, c IV $409.6, V $327.68 .. :

 

I D = 1000

       
   


K R K = D × (1 rr)

II D = 800 200

       
   


K R K = [D × (1 rr)] × (1 rr)

D = 640 160

       
   


K R K = [D × (1 rr)2] × (1 rr)

IV D = 512 128

       
   
 


K R K = [D × (1 rr)3] × (1 rr)

V D = 409.6 102.4

       
   
 


K R K = [D × (1 rr)4] × (1 rr)

..

.

( I, , , IV, V ..), , :

= D I + D + D + D IV + D V + =

= D + D × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)] × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)2] × (1 rr) +

+ [D × (1 rr)3] × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)4] × (1 rr) + =

= 1000 + 800 + 640 + 512 + 409.6 + 327.68 +

. (1 rr), .. 1. :

= D × 1/(1 (1 rr)) = D × 1/rr

= 1000 × 1/0.2 = 1000 × 5 = 5000

1/rr ( ) :

mult . = 1/rr

. , : , .

= D × mult

, , 2,7.

, , . 5 .

. , ( ), , ( ). , , , , . , , . ( ) .

(), (D). ( ), .. = + D, I ($1000) , .. , D. , $4000 (D = DI = 5000 1000 = 4000), .. . , II I , $800. , :

D = D + D + D IV + D V + =

= D × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)] × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)2] × (1 rr) +

+ [D × (1 rr)3] × (1 rr) + [D × (1 rr)4] × (1 rr) + =

= 800 + 640 + 512 + 409.6 + 327.68 + =

= 800 × (1/0.2) = 800 × 5 = 4000

D = [D × (1 rr)] × (1/rr) = × (1/rr) = × mult =

= 800 × (1/0.2) = 4000

, :

- ,

-

,

, (-) .

 



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