Vocabulary
| hijacking | воздушное пиратство | assailant | субъект нападения |
| bombings | бомбежки | actual | фактически существующий |
| constitute | составлять | claim | претендовать |
| foremost | на первом месте | ensure | обеспечивать |
| random | выбранный наугад | ransom | выкуп |
| injure | ранить | extortion | вымогательство |
| in the vicinity of | поблизости | rake-off | взятка |
| by virtue of | в силу | skim the cream off | снимать сливки |
| abduction | похищение | hostage | заложник |
| insecurity | отсутствие безопасности |
1) What constituted a growing phenomenon of increasing concern to Western governments? 2) What are most terrorist groups associated with? 3) What may be distinguished by intention? 4) What is the first category of terrorist crime? 5) What is the first tactic generating fear? 6) Why is terrorism said to be a form of crime that runs counter to all morality and undermines the foundations of civilization? 7) What is the second tactic generating fear? 8) What is the second category of terrorist crime? 9) What is common for leaders of terrorist organizations? 10) What and how may be terrorized? 11) What is the third category of terrorist crime? 12) What are the principal crimes of this category?
► Ex. II. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1) Hijacking is the use of violence or threats to take control of a car. 2) To terrorize means to take someone away illegally, usually by force, in order to get money for returning them. 3) Terrorist is someone who uses bribes to obtain political demands. 4) Terrorist uses violence to create public order. 5) The government is determined to surrender to international terrorism. 6) Terrorism is directed at innocent onlookers. 7) Terrorism throws down the unique worth of the individual. 8) Terrorism runs counter to all immorality. 9) Terrorism strengthens the foundations of civilization. 10) Terrorism is the best medicine for fear. 11) Terrorism encourages ordinary people to take positions of leadership. 12) Terrorism spreads a sense of security. 13) Terrorism cultivates obedience and discipline by terrorizing their own members. 14) To kidnap means to deliberately frighten people by threatening to harm them, especially so they will do what you want.
► Ex. III. Restore the word order in the following statements.
1) Hijacking the use of violence or threats is to take control of a plane. 2) To kidnap to take someone away means illegally, usually by force, in order to get money for returning them. 3) Terrorist uses is someone who bombing or shooting to obtain political demands. 4) Terrorist violence to create public fear uses. 5) The government is to combat international terrorism determined. 6) Terrorism is at innocent bystanders directed. 7) Terrorism the unique worth of the individual denies. 8) Terrorism counter to all morality runs. 9) Terrorism the foundations of civilization undermines. 10) Terrorism fear generates. 11) Terrorism others afraid of taking positions of makes leadership. 12) Terrorism a sense of insecurity spreads. 13) Terrorism obedience and discipline by terrorizing their enforces own members. 14) To terrorize to deliberately frighten people by threatening to harm them, means especially so they will do what you want.
Ex. IV- Translate the following words and phrases from Russian into English.
Насилие; угроза; воздушное пиратство; взять под контроль; бомбежки; выбранный наугад; ранить; похищение; взять незаконно силой; отсутствие безопасности; субъект нападения; претендовать; обеспечивать; выкуп; вымогательство; взятка; заложник; насильно или обманом похитить; создать страх в обществе; бороться против международного терроризма; невинный наблюдатель; отрицать; уникальная ценность личности; мораль; основы цивилизации; генерировать страх; распространять; принуждать к покорности; терроризировать; пугать людей; сдаваться.
► Ex. V. Complete the following statements.
1) Hijacking is... 2) To kidnap means... 3) Terrorist is... 4) Terrorist uses... 5) The government is determined to... 6) Terrorism is directed at... 7) Terrorism denies... 8) Terrorism runs... 9) Terrorism undermines... 10) Terrorism generates... 11) Terrorism makes... 12) Terrorism spreads... 13) Terrorism enforces... 14) To terrorize means...
► Ex. VI. Choose one topic to speak about terrorism:
a) its first category;
b) its second category;
c) its third category.
Retell the text “Terrorism”.
CHAPTER III
CHARACTERISTICS OF OFFENDERS
Unit 13
Ex I. Scan through the text. Work in pairs to answer the questions that follow.
Male criminality and female criminality. Knowledge of the types of people who commit crimes is generally based on studies of those who have been detected, prosecuted, and convicted. A first aspect of criminality is that crime is predominantly a male activity. In all criminal populations men outnumber women by a high proportion. In Britain in 1984, for instance, of 449,000 offenders found guilty of criminal offenses, 387,400 (86 percent) were males; in the same year, the average population of the prisons consisted of 41,822 men and 1,473 women. In most Western societies the incidence (the number of times something bad happens) of recorded crime by women, and the number of women passing through the penal systems, is on the increase; in the United States, for instance, the number of women arrested for property crimes between 1960 and 1976 increased by 276 percent—a significantly higher rate of increase than that exhibited by other groups. A similar trend is shown in English prison statistics: the number of women in prison rose from 538 in 1974 to 941 in 1984, an increase of 75 percent in 10 years. A number of explanations have been offered for this trend. One suggestion is that it reflects a real trend in the commission of crimes by women—that the changing social role of women, with more women leaving the home and taking employment, expecting and achieving financial independence, leads to greater opportunity for crime and to greater temptation. An alternative explanation is that the change in the rate of female criminality merely reflects a change in the operation of the criminal justice system—that crimes committed by women are less likely than was previously the case to be ignored by law enforcement agencies out of a sense of chivalry. Even though female criminality appears to be increasing faster than male criminality, it will be many years before women reach the same level of crime as men.
VOCABULARY
| female | женский | exhibit | показывать |
| male | мужской | trend | тенденция |
| outnumber | превосходить численно | criminal justice | уголовное судопроизводство |
| incidence | сфера действия | less likely | менее вероятный |
| recorded crime | преступление, зафиксированное в досье преступника | law enforcement agency | правоприменяющий орган |
| penal system | пенитенциарная система | chivalry | рыцарство |
| increase | увеличивать, увеличение |
1) What is based on studies of those who have been detected, prosecuted, and convicted? 2) Is crime predominantly a male activity? 3) Do men outnumber women in all criminal populations? 4) What is on the increase in most Western societies? 5) What is shown in English prison statistics? 6) What is the first explanation for this trend? 7) What is the second explanation for this trend?
► Ex. II. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1) Crime is predominantly a female activity. 2) Men leave behind women in all criminal populations. 3) Women are seldom found guilty of criminal offenses. 4) Few women passed through the penal systems. 5) Women are often arrested for serious crimes. 6) The commission of crimes by women decreased. 7) The changing social role of women leads to greater opportunity for education and upbringing. 8) The change in the rate of male criminality reflects a change in the operation of the criminal justice system. 9) Crimes committed by women were ignored by law enforcement agencies out of a sense of humour. 10) Male criminality increases faster than female one. 11) Women will soon reach the same level of crime as men.
► Ex. III. Restore the word order in the following statements.
1) Crime predominantly a male activity is. 2) Men women in all criminal populations outnumber. 3) Women are often guilty of criminal offenses found. 4) Many women through the penal systems passed. 5) Women are often for property crimes arrested. 6) The increased commission of crimes by women. 7) The changing social role of women to greater opportunity for crime and to greater temptation leads. 8) The change in the rate of female criminality a change in the operation of the reflects criminal justice system. 9) Crimes committed by women were by law enforcement agencies out of a sense of chivalry ignored. 10) Female criminality to be increasing faster than male criminality appears. 11) Women will never the same level of crime as men reach.
► Ex. IV. Translate the following words and phrases from Russian into English.
Превзойти; тяжкое преступление; уменьшаться; соблазн; воспитание; чувство юмора; женский; мужской; система карательно-исправительных учреждений; увеличивать; увеличение; показывать; тенденция; уголовное судопроизводство; менее вероятный; правоприменяющий орган; превосходить численно; сфера действия; преступление, зафиксированное в досье преступника; рыцарство.
► Ex. V. Complete the following statements.
1) Crime is predominantly... 2) Men outnumber... 3) Women are often found guilty of... 4) Many women passed through... 5) Women are often arrested for... 6) The commission of crimes by women... 7) The changing social role of women leads... 8) The change in the rate of female criminality reflects...9) Crimes committed by women were ignored... 10) Female criminality appears... 11) Women will never reach...
Ex. VI. Choose one topic to speak about
a) male criminality;
b) female criminality.
Retell the text “Male criminality and female criminality”.
UNIT 14
► Ex. I. Scan through the text Work in pairs to answer the questions that follow.
Age, social and racial aspects of criminality. A second aspect of criminality is that crime is predominantly an activity of the young. In both Britain and the United States, for example, the
I peak period for involvement in relatively minor property crime is adolescence (from 15 to 21). For involvement in more serious crimes the peak age is likely to be rather higher, from the late teenage years through the 20s. Criminality tends to decline steadily after the age of 30. Criminologists have sought explanations of this phenomenon—whether it is a natural effect of aging, the consequence of taking on family responsibilities, or the effect of experiencing penal measures imposed by the law for some crimes. Not all types of crime are subject to decline with aging. Fraud and certain kinds of theft, as well as crimes requiring a high level of businesslike organization, are more likely to be committed by older men, and sudden crimes of violence, committed for emotional reasons, may occur at any age. The relationship between social class or economic status and crime shows that a higher incidence (the number of times something bad happens) of criminality was concentrated in the slums of large cities, and studies of penal populations revealed that the level of educational and occupational attainments was generally lower than in the wider population. Studies of juvenile delinquents disclosed a high proportion of lower-class offenders, that is, criminality is closely associated with social origin. The relationship between racial or ethnic origin and criminality is a difficult question. Penal populations contain a disproportionately high number of persons from some minority racial groups, that is, the proportion of minority group members in prison is greater than the group's proportion in the general population. This may be the result of unemployment and low economic status, or discriminatory enforcement practices on the part of the police and the adherence of some minority groups to cultural standards that are in conflict with the general law.
VOCABULARY
| adolescence | подростковый возраст | juvenile delinquents | несовершеннолетние преступники |
| likely | вероятный | social origin | социальное происхождение |
| teenage | находящийся в возрасте от 12 до 19 лет | racial | расовый |
| aging | старение | disproportionately | непропорционально |
| consequence | следствие | minority | меньшинство |
| experience | знать по опыту | discriminatory | пристрастный |
| penal | пенитенциарный | adherence | приверженность |
| subject | подлежащий | prejudice | предрассудок |
| incidence | сфера действия | old people | старики |
| attainments | достижения |
1) Crime is predominantly an activity of the young, isn't it? 2) What is the peak period for involvement in relatively minor property crime in Britain and the US? 3) What is the peak age for involvement in more serious crimes? 4) Criminality tends to decline steadily after the age of 30, doesn't it? 5) What explanations of this phenomenon can criminologists give? 6) Are all types of crime subject to decline with aging? 7) Are fraud and theft more likely to be committed by older men? 8) At what age may sudden crimes of violence occur? 9) What does the relationship between social class or economic status and crime show? 10) What did studies of penal populations reveal? 11) What did studies of juvenile delinquents disclose? 12) What do penal populations contain? 13) What might be the reason for a disproportionately high number of prisoners from some minority racial groups?
► Ex. II. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1) Crime is predominantly an activity of the aged. 2) The peak period for involvement in minor property crime is advanced age. 3) For involvement in more serious crimes the peak age is awkward age. 4) Criminality tends to decline after the age of 90. 5) The decline of criminality after the age of 30 is an unnatural effect of aging. 6) The decline of criminality after the age of 30 is the consequence of taking on family burden. 7) The decline of criminality after the age of 30 is the effect of experiencing simultaneously contradictory feelings towards relatives. 8) All types of crime are subject to decline with aging. 9) Older men commit bank robbery and hijacking. 10) Sudden crimes of violence may occur at baby age. 11) Criminality is not closely associated with social origin. 12) Criminality is closely associated with pains of unknown origin. 13) Ethnic majority is a group of people of a different race from the main group in a country. 14) Racial discrimination is fair treatment of people because of their race. 15) Racial prejudice is the belief that other races are as bad or as unreasonable as your own race.
► Ex. III. Restore the word order in the following statements.
1) Crime predominantly an activity of the young is. 2) The peak is period for involvement in minor property crime adolescence. 3) For involvement is in more serious crimes the peak age through the 20s. 4) Criminality to decline after the age of 30 tends. 5) The decline of criminality after the age of 30 a natural effect of aging is. 6) The decline is of criminality after the age of 30 the consequence of taking on family responsibilities. 7) The decline of is criminality after the age of 30 the effect of experiencing penal measures. 8) Not are all types of crime subject to decline with aging. 9) Fraud and theft committed are by older men. 10) Sudden crimes of violence occur at any age may. 11) Criminality associated is closely with social origin. 12) Criminality is closely with racial or ethnic origin associated. 13) Ethnic is minority a group of people of a different race from the main group in a country. 14) Racial discrimination unfair treatment of people because of their race is. 15) Racial is prejudice the belief that other races are not as good or as intelligent as your own race.
► Ex. IV. Translate the following words and phrases from Russian into English.
Преклонный возраст; переходный возраст; бремя; карательная мера; испытывать одновременно противоречивые чувства к близким; ограбление банка; угон самолета; младенческий возраст; боли неясного происхождения; неразумный; подростковый возраст; находящийся в возрасте от 12 до 19 лет; старение; следствие; знать по опыту; карательный; подлежащий; сфера действия; достижения; несовершеннолетние преступники; социальное происхождение; расовый; непропорционально; меньшинство; пристрастный; приверженность; предрассудок; старики.
► Ex. V. Complete the following statements.
1) A second aspect of criminality is... 2)... is adolescence. 3) For... the peak age is... 4) Criminality tends... 5) Criminologists have sought... 6) Not all types of crime are... 7) Crimes requiring a high level of businesslike organization are committed by... 8) Crimes of violence may occur... 9) The relationship between social class or economic status and criminality shows... 10) Studies of juvenile delinquents disclosed... 11) Criminality is closely associated with... 12) The relationship between racial or ethnic origin and criminality is... 13) Penal populations contain... 14) Racial criminality may be the result of...
► Ex. VI. Choose one topic to speak about a) age criminality; b) the relationship between social class or economic status and crime; c) the relationship between racial or ethnic origin and criminality.
Retell the text “Age, social and racial aspects of criminality”.
CHAPTER IV
CAUSATION OF CRIME
UNIT 15
► Ex. I. Scan through the text Work in pairs to answer the questions that follow.
Biological theories. Some theories attribute the tendency toward criminality to innate biological factors. The most famous of these is probably that of the Italian Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), one of the first scientific criminologists, whose theories were related to Darwinian theories of evolution. His investigations of the skulls and facial features of robbers led him to the hypothesis that serious or persistent criminality was associated with atavism, or the reversion to a primitive stage of human development. [Atavism is reappearance in a person of a characteristic or quality that has not shown itself for several or many generations.] Another biological theory related criminality to body types, suggesting that it was more common among muscular, athletic persons than among tall, thin persons or soft, rounded individuals. Some criminologists have endeavoured to answer the question of whether biological factors are more important than social factors in criminal behaviour by studying the behaviour of twins. Various studies have shown that twins are more likely to exhibit similar tendencies toward criminality if they are identical than if they are fraternal. [Identical twin is one of a pair of brothers or sisters born at the same time to the same mother, who look almost exactly alike.] The suggestion of genetic influences in criminal behaviour is supported by studies of adopted children carried out to determine the influence of the biological parent on criminality. One such study showed that the rate of criminality was higher among those adopted children who had one biological parent who was criminal than among those who had one adoptive parent who was criminal. The highest rates of criminality were found among those children who had both biological parents and adoptive parents who were criminal.
VOCABULARY
| attribute | приписывать | relate | относить |
| innate | врожденный | muscular | мускулистый |
| biological | биологический | endeavour | пытаться |
| facial | лицевой | exhibit | проявить |
| hypothesis | предположение | identical | идентичный (однояйцевый) |
| persistent criminal/ recidivist | закоренелый преступник, рецидивист | fraternal | братский (разнояйцовый) |
| atavism | появление у потомка признаков вырождения или уродства, свойственных его отдалённым предкам | adopt | усыновлять |
| reversion | возвращение | adoptive | приемный |
1) What factors do some theories attribute the tendency toward criminality to? 2) Whose theories were related to Darwinian theories qf evolution? 3) What hypothesis did his investigations lead him to? 4) What did another biological theory relate criminality to? 5) What question did some criminologists try to answer? 6) Are identical or fraternal twins more likely to exhibit criminality? 7) What is the suggestion of genetic influences in criminal behaviour supported by? 8) Among what children was the rate of criminality higher?
► Ex. //. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1) Serious criminality is associated with magnetism. 2) Persistent criminality is associated with a civilized society. 3) Recidivist is a criminal who keeps doing things that are illegal, even after they have been punished. 4) Theory of Evolution relates criminality to body types. 5) Criminality is more common among tall, thin persons than among muscular, athletic persons. 6) Social factors are more important than biological factors in criminal behaviour. 7) Fraternal twins are more likely to exhibit tendencies toward criminality. 8) Identical twins are less likely to exhibit tendencies toward criminality.
► Ex. ///. Restore the word order in the following statements.
1) Serious criminality associated with atavism was. 2) Persistent criminality was with the reversion to a primitive stage of human development associated. 3) Biological theory criminality to body types related. 4) Criminality more common among muscular, athletic persons than among tall, thin persons was. 5) Biological factors more important than social factors in are criminal behaviour. 6) Identical twins tendencies toward are more likely to exhibit criminality. 7) Fraternal twins tendencies toward criminality are less likely to exhibit.
► Ex. IV. Translate the following words and phrases from Russian into
English.
Личное обаяние; рецидивист; цивилизованное общество; эволюционная теория; приписывать; innate врожденный; биологический; лицевой; гипотеза; закоренелый преступник; рецидивист; появление у потомка признаков вырождения или уродства; возвращение; проявить; идентичный; братский; усыновлять; относить; мускулистый; пытаться; приемный.
► Ex. У. Complete the following statements.
1) Lombroso's investigations of the skulls and facial features of robbers led him to... 2) Atavism is... 3) Biological theory related criminality to... 4) Criminologists endeavoured to answer the question of... 5) Identical twins are more likely to exhibit... 6) Fraternal are less likely to exhibit... 7) Identical twin is... 8) The suggestion of genetic influences in criminal behaviour is supported by... 9) Studies of adopted children showed that... 10) The highest rates of criminality were found among
► Ex. VI. Choose one topic to speak about
a) atavism and criminality;
b) body types and criminality;
c) twins and criminality;
d) adopted children and criminality.
Retell the text “Biological theories”.
UNIT 16
► Ex. /. Scan through the text Restore the word order in the questions that follow and answer them.
Sociological theories. [Sociology is the scientific study of societies and the behaviour of people in groups.] Sociologists have proposed a variety of theories that explain criminal behaviour. One such theory, known as differential association, proposed that criminal behaviour is learned behaviour, that is, the more the individual is exposed to contact with persons whose own behaviour is unlawful, the more likely he is to learn and adopt their values as the basis for his own behaviour. The theory of anomie (normlessness) suggested that criminality is a result of the offender's inability to attain by socially acceptable means the goals that society expects of him. Anomy, in societies or individuals, is a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals. When a social system is in a state of anomie, common values and common meanings are no longer understood or accepted, and new values and meanings have not developed. Such a society produces, in many of its members, psychological states characterized by a sense of futility, lack of purpose, and emotional emptiness and despair. Striving is considered useless, because there is no accepted definition of what is desirable. Control theory emphasizes the links between the offender and his social group—the individual's bond to society. According to this theory, the ability of the individual to resist the inclination to commit crime—which may be an easy way to satisfy a particular desire—depends on the strength of his attachment to parents and his commitment to orthodox moral values that prohibit the conduct in question. Labeling theory, by contrast, portrays criminality as a product of the reaction of society to the individual, rather than of his own inclinations and personality. It assumes that the criminal is not substantially different from any other individual, except that he has become involved in the processes of the criminal justice system and has acquired a "criminal" identity. Through a process of rejection by law-abiding persons and acceptance by other delinquents, the offender becomes more and more socialized into criminal behaviour patterns and estranged from law-abiding behaviour. Eventually he comes to see himself cast by society into the role of a criminal.
VOCABULARY
| sociology | социология | attachment | привязанность |
| sociological | социологический | commitment | обязательство |
| sociologist | социолог | orthodox | общепринятый |
| differential | отличительный | labelling | снабжение продукта этикеткой; маркировка |
| association | связь | assume | предполагать |
| learn | научиться | criminal justice | уголовное судопроизводство |
| expose | подвергать | acquire | приобретать |
| adopt | перенимать | criminal identity | личность преступника |
| attain | достигнуть | rejection | непринятие |
| acceptable | приемлемый | delinquent | правонарушитель |
| psychological | психологический | socialize | подготавливать к жизни в |
| futility | тщетность | estrange | отдалять |
| striving | старания; стремления | eventually | в конце концов |
| bond | связь, узы | cast | бросать |
| resist | противостоять | anomalous | неправильный, аномальный, ненормальный |
| inclination | склонность | insanity | умопомешательство |
