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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8
I. Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of
Translation 10
Translation as a Notion and Subject 10
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Significance of Translating/Interpreting 13
Translation in Teaching of Foreign Languages 15
Ways of Translating 16
Machine Translation 26
Kinds of Translating/Interpreting 28
Suggested Topics for Self-Control and Class Discussion 32
II. A Short Historical Outline of European and
Ukrainian Translation 34
Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages 38
Translation during the Renaissance Period 41
Translation during the Period of Classicism and
Enlightenment 42
The Epoch of Romanticism and Establishment of the
Principles of Faithful Translation in Europe 44
Translation in Kyivan Rus' during the 10th -13th Centuries
and in Ukraine during the 14th-16th Centuries 47
The Kyiv Mohyla Academy and Revival of Translation
Activities in Ukraine 52
Kotlyarevskyi's Free Adaptation of Virgil's Aeneid and the
Beginning of a New Era in Ukrainian Translation 54
Translation and Translators during the Late
19th - Early 20th Centuries 57
Translation during the Years of Ukraine's Independence
(1917-1921) and Soviet Rule 63
Translation and Translators in Post-War Ukraine. The
Development of the Principles of Faithful Translation 72
Translation in Ukraine during the Last Decade of the 20th
Century and the Role of the Vsesvit Journal 86
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 89
///. Lexicological Aspects of Translation 91
Methods and Ways of Translating Various Proper Names 92
Conveying the Names of Companies, Corporations, Firms 104
Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing 113
Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation 126
Units of International Lexicon and Ways of Rendering
Their Meaning and Lingual Form 128
Ways of Conveying the Lexical Meaning of Genuine
Internationalisms 135
Translating of Loan Internationalisms 140
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 141
Exercises for Class and Homework 142
Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 146
News Items for Class Translation at Sight (in Viva Voce) 148
Units of Nationally Biased Lexicon and Ways of
Their Translation 151
Ways of Rendering the Meaning of Nationally
Biased Units of Lexicon 157
Exercises for Class and Homework 169
Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 177
Translating of Idiomatic/Phraseological and Stable
Expressions 182
Transformations of Some Idioms in the Process of
Translating 196
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 198
Exercises for Class and Homework 198
IV. Lexico-Grammatical Aspects of Translation 208
Rendering of the Contextual Meanings of the Definite and
Indefinite Articles 208
Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Definite Article 210
Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Indefinite Article 215
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 221
Exercises for Class and Homework 221
Asyndetic Noun Clusters and Rendering Their
Meaning into Ukrainian 225
Approaches to Translating Asyndetic Substantival Clusters 226
Translation of Two-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters 227
Translation of Three-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters 232
Translation of Four-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters 237
Translation of Five-, Six- and Seven-Componental Asyndetic
Substantival Clusters 240
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 243
Exercises for Class and Home Translation 244
Translating of English Verbals and Verbal
Constructions/Complexes 252
Ways of Rendering the Lexico-Grammatical Meanings
and Function of the English Infinitive 253
Ways of Translating Infinitival Complexes 256
Ways of Translating the Objective with the Infinitive
Constructions/Predicative Complexes 259
Ways of Rendering the Meaning of the Subjective with the
Infinitive Constructions 263
Ways of Translating the Participles and Participial
Constructions 269
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Ways of Translating Participial Constructions/Complexes 273
A. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes 274
B. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes 276
C. Ways of Translating the Nominative Absolute Participial
Constructions/Complexes 280
D. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative
Absolute Participial Constructions 283
Structural Types of Ukrainian Language Units Conveying the Meaning of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions... 285
Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes 295
Ways of Translating Gerundial Complexes/Constructions 299
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 302
Ways and Means of Expressing Modality in English and
Ukrainian 308
The Lexico-Grammatical Expression of Modality
through Modal Verbs 310
English Modal Verbs Having not Always Modal Verbs
Equivalents in Ukrainian 334
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 343
Exercises for Class and Homework 343
Transformations in the Process of Translation 361
Grammatically and Stylistically Prearranged
Transformations 367
Stylistically/Subjectively Predetermined Transformations 369
Ways of Conveying the Passive Voice Constructions 370
Objectively Required and Subjectively Introduced/Contextual
Transformations of Language Units 376
Objectively and Subjectively Conditioned Transformations
of Lexical Units in the Process of Translation 382
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 387
Exercises for Class and Homework 387
V. Semantic Aspects of Translation 391
Language Units and Levels of Their Faithful Translation 391
Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic
Language Units 394
Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at
Passage/Text Level 398
Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of
Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt 405
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 419
Exercises for Class and Homework 420
Publicistic and Newspaper Style Texts and Ways of
Their Translation 423
New Items for Class and Home Written or Oral Translation 437
A List of Literature Used and Recommended 445
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I. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION AS A NOTION AND SUBJECT
Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its common and most general meaning being mostly associated with the action or process of rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the process/action of rendering. In other words with the work performed by the translator (cf. this is my translation). Translation is also used to denote the subject taught or studied, the examination in the subject (cf. we have translation in the time-table today; I have to pass translation tomorrow). Translation may refer to the title of the manual/ theoretical work on the subject (cf. I bought Translation by Ivanenko). Besides, the Romanization of proper nouns, geographical names, different internationalisms, etc., when Latin letters are used to convey the Ukrainian nouns, verbs, adverbs is translation too: Kyiv, Brovary, Lviv, Bila Tserkva, Poltava, Zghurivka, Medvyn, algebra , geographerreorpadp, computer ', opera , telephone (v) , mechanically , ignore , historically . Translated in this way, i.e., transliterated with the help of Cyrillic letters are many English and other foreign names and different terms. Cf.: Archibald Cronin , RobertFrosf , Ottawa , Mc/ͳ, Susar/, Helmut /</ , shilling , pizza , therapeutic , etc.
No less ambiguous is also the term interpretation which is synonymous to translation and is used to denote the way or manner of presenting the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). These may be artistic, genre and stylistic peculiarities rendered by the translator in his particular way, which is somewhat different from that of the author's. The thing is that interpretation, unlike translation, admits some more freedom of the translator in his treatment (at least in certain places or cases) of the matter under translation. Hence,
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the existence of free versifications () and free adaptation () which are rightly treated as new creations (when they are of high artistic value). To the latter belong the famous free interpretations of Virgil's Aeneid in Ukrainian by I. Kotlyarevskyi or I. Franko's free adaptation of the German work Reineke Fuchs under the Ukrainian title , and many others both in our national literature and in world literature. Practically adapted (thought in a peculiar way and with the highest degree of faithfulness, i.e. interpreted according to our national literary tradition), are also Shakespearean masterpieces, Byronean writings and many other poetic and prose works. Consequently, interpretation may denote apart from the oral method of translation also a peculiar, pertained to a master of the pen and characteristic of him, as well as the only way of presenting a prose or poetic work in translation. (Interpretation may also denote the style of a peculiar translator and his way of presenting a particular literary work).
Apart from the two mentioned above, there are some other terms in the theory of translation which may seen ambiguous to the inexperienced student. These usually common terms are: accurate or exact (to what degree?) translation ; faithful (or realistic) translation, / ; faithfulness of translation/interpretation, / / ; fidelity (or faithfulness) of translation/interpretation , ; equivalent translation/interpretation ; free interpretation , ; free adaptation , ; free interpretation , ; free/loose translation , ; consecutive interpretation , ; off-hand translation/ interpretation / ( ); rehash ( ) ; sight translation/interpretation (translation at sight) / /; simultaneous translation/ interpretation ; rough translation , and some others.
Each of the above-mentioned terms may be understood and interpreted differently. Thus, free interpretation may mean both free translation, free adaptation and sometimes even loose translation. Similarly with the terms and notions as faithful translation and equivalent translation which are synonymous if
not identical by their general meaning thought not without some difference between them. The term faithful translation (, ) is used to denote the highest level/degree of rendering the denotative or connotative meanings of words, the sense of word-groups and sentences, the content, the expressiveness, picturesqueness and the pragmatic subtext/intention of passages or works of the source language with the help of the available means of the target language. The term equivalent translation is nowadays practically used in the same meaning as faithful translation with one exception only: it also includes the necessity of quantitative and qualitative representation of all constitutive parts or elements of the source language units in the target language. Consequently, a faithful translation very often means the same as equivalent translation which can be best illustrated on single words, word-groups or sentences as the following: acre , democracy , work , professors and students , fo work hard , take part , throw light , between Scilla and Charybdis , Ukraine celebrated her fifth anniversary in August 1996 ' 1996 .
Equivalent can also be considered the translation of the following English sentence which maintains in Ukrainian its main constituent parts, its content, expressiveness and picturesqueness: There was Penelope flying after me like mad. (W.Collins) , , .
In regard to the afore-said, there can be no equivalence but only faithfulness in the translation of such and the like English language units as: complexion , to take measures , little bird (), live in the street , one's sands are running out (idiom) / , same here (colloq.) ( ) ( ), / or: . In a large number of cases translation is traditionally applied to various substitutions of the source language constituents/images for the explicatory constituents and images of the target language, which helps achieve the necessary faithfulness in conveying their meaning. Cl: penny-in-the slot / - (); the land of golden fleece ; red blood , ,
(); let George do it ( ); agonic () , etc. Therefore, faithfull is not always equivalent.
The term translation is used even to denote purely functional substitutions which have absolutely nothing in common with any expression/rendering of meaning of the source language sense units in the target language. A graphic example of this kind of translation can be the following passage: There's the tree in the middle... It could bark... It says Bough-wough... That's why its branches are called boughs. (L.Carrol, Alice in Wonderland). In Ukrainian: Գ !.. Գ-, . It goes without saying that the lexical meaning of tree is not Գ and Bough-wough or boughs do not correlate with which they were substituted for in this Ukrainian translation by H.Bushyna.
Similarly translated i.e. functionally substituted are different English and Ukrainian metaphorically used nouns, verbs and set expressions as in the examples knight of the pencil / , baby-snatcher , , the Square Mile ѳ ( ), the Square Mile of Vice (, ), soft head (), etc.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING
The importance of translating and interpreting in modern society has long been recognized. Practically not a single contact at the international level or even between any two foreign persons speaking different languages can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters.
Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted functioning of different international bodies (conferences, symposia, congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies like the E.E.C.(European Economic Council), the I.M.F.(lnternational Monetary Fund) or the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils, assemblies, commissions, committees and sub-committees. These can function smoothly only thanks to an army of translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different national languages.
Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up
with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. The latter comprise nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecological environment, plastics, mining, chemistry, biology, medicine, machine building, electronics, linguistics, etc. In the present days translation of scientific and technical matter has become a most significant and reliable source of obtaining all-round and up-to-date information on the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries of the world.
The social and political role of translation/interpretation has probably been most strongly felt in the 20th century when it provided the dissemination of political (doctrinal) ideas, of social and political knowledge in different fields of sciences.
Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national languages, literatures and cultures (operas, artistic films). The many translations of the prose, poetry and drama works of the world's famous authors into different national languages provide a vivid illustration of this permanent process. Due to masterly translations of the works by W.Shakespeare, W.Scott, G.G.Byron, P.B.Shelley, C.Dickens, W.Thackeray, O.Wilde, W.S.Maugham, A.Christie, H.W.Longfellow, Mark Twain, J.London, T.Dreiser, R.Frost, E.Hemingway, F.C.Fitzgerald and many other authors their works have become part and parcel of many national literatures. The works by Ukrainian authors have also been translated into English and some other languages, the process being increasingly intensified after Ukraine's gaining independence in 1991. Hitherto only the works of Ukrainian classics had mainly been published in some foreign languages. Among them are first of all T.Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, M.Kotsyubynskyi, V.Stephanyk, V.Vynnychenko, I. Bahryanyi, O.Honchar, O.Dovzhenko. Now the works of V.Symonenko, L.Kostenko, I. Drach, HryhirTyutyunnyk, V.Stus and others are also translated into various foreign languages and have become available for many readers abroad.
Whatever the type of matter is translated (belles-lettres, scientific or didactic, social or political, etc.) and irrespective of the form in which it is performed (written or oral) the linguistic and social or cultural significance of translation/interpretation remains always unchanged. It promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing everyday
political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different nations the lexicon of all languages constantly increases. Thousands of words and phrases, which were unknown in national languages before, become an integral part of their lexicon. Among them are units like steppe, Cossack/Kozak, Verkhovna Rada, hryvnia, different scientific/technical and other terms (, ', , , , , , , , etc.). Consequently, translation/interpretation is a very effective means of enriching the national and international lexicon of all languages. But, as has been said, it is not only the word-stock (or rather the vocabulary) of languages that is constantly enriched. And it is not only separate words that are borrowed by national languages as a result of translating/interpreting; a lot of expressions and regular sentence idioms have come to national languages in this way as well. For example: the first/second, third reading (Parliament) / , Olympic calmness , the Ten Commandments , to see a mot in one's eye , to take part , time is money - , black ingratitude , the Trojan horse , Judah's kiss , and many others.
Among the adopted sentence structures are, for instance, the idioms God defend me from my friends; from my enemies I will defend myself , , , ; an old dog will learn no new tricks ; he laughs best who laughs last 쳺 , 쳺 , to be or not to be , the game is not worth the candlerpa , etc.
These few out of many more sentence idioms are a testimony to the versatile influence of translators' activities upon the enrichment of languages through translation. The idiomatic word-groups and sentences of the source language almost always partly influence the placement of their component parts in the Ukrainian target language and thus facilitated their memorazing as well.
TRANSLATION IN TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Translating as a means of teaching foreign languages has no independent value of its own for it is impossible to teach all aspects of a language in their complexity by means of translation only. Nev-
ertheless translation in foreign language teaching (and learning) can not and should not be ignored altogether since in many a case it remains not only the most effective but also the only possible teaching means in achieving the necessary aim. That is why translation is often resorted to in the process of teaching and presenting some important aspects of a foreign language.
Translation in teaching is employed by the teacher both at the initial, at the intermediary and at the advanced stage of learning/ teaching foreign languages. But irrespective of the level at which the foreign language is studied or taught, translation is both helpful and indispensable in the following cases:
1. When introducing even simple abstract lexemes or notions,
which can not easily be explained in a descriptive way or by actions
(gestures): think, hate, love, actual, invincible, generally, peace, turn,
friendship, image, dream, consider, feeling, firstly, immensely, at last,
gray, immense, strongly, beautifully, haggis, lordship, ladyship, etc.
2. In order to save time and avoid diverting the attention of
students by lengthy explications of the meaning of words, different,
word-combinations or sentences in the process of reading or listening
to an unfamiliar passage.
3. When checking up the comprehension of the lexical material
(new words, expressions) and in order to avoid the unnecessary
ambiguity which may arise in the process of teaching through pic
tures, since a picture of a tree, for example, may be understood as
a tree or as a kind of tree (oak-tree, birch-tree, pine-tree, etc.).
4. While introducing at the lesson (usually at the initial stage
of teaching/learning) the new grammar/phonetical material, espe
cially the phenomena which do not exist in the native tongue
(e.g. the continuous or the perfect forms of the verb, different passive
constructions, infinitival, gerundial, and participal constructions (sec
ondary predication complexes).
5. When revising the lexical or grammar material studied at
the lesson/at previous lessons or answering questions like: 'What is
the Ukrainian for the gerund, sequence of tenses, the progressive/
perfect form of the verb?' etc.
6. While discriminating the meaning of synonyms or antonyms
of the foreign language, for example: explain the difference between
great and large, small and tiny, tall and high, clever and foolish, etc.
7. When checking up the knowledge of students in written and
oral tests on lexical or grammar material.
8. When introducing idiomatic expressions which is mostly im
possible to teach and learn otherwise than on the basis of translating
(cf. Hobson's choice, to play hooky, look before you leap; when at
Rome; do as the Romans do: the game is worth the candle, etc.).
9. Before learning any text by heart (poems, excerpts of prose
or the roles of characters in plays).
10. When dealing with characteristic national figures of speech
(metaphors, epithets, similes, hyperboles, etc.) in the process of read
ing or translating the belles-lettres passages even at the advanced
stage of studying a foreign language.
11. When comparing the expressive means in the system of
the source language to those in the target language, etc.
Translation helps the student to master the expressive means in the source and in the target language. In the process of translating the student establishes sets of equivalent substitutes in the target language for the correspondent lexical, grammatical or stylistic phenomena of the source language. No wonder that the student at any stage of learning a foreign language, when not understanding some word, word-combination or sentence always resorts to intuitive translating of it into his native language.
WAYS OF TRANSLATING
Translating is unseparable from understanding and it goes along with conveying content and sometimes even the form of language units. As a result, the process of translation, provided it is not performed at the level of separate simple words, involves simultaneously some aspects of the source language and those of the target language. These are morphology (word-building and word forms), the lexicon (words, phraseologisms, mots), syntax (the means of connection and the structure of syntaxemes), stylistics (peculiarities of speech styles, tropes, etc.).
The level or the degree of faithfulness of translation is mostly predetermined by some factors, which may be both of objective and of subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the translation to be performed, the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the matter selected for translation, etc. Depending on these and some other factors, the following methods of translating are traditionally recognized in the theory and practice of translation:
1. Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing
with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator , director , region , hotel/motel/, hydrometer , Tom , etc.
It is easy to notice that in some words thus translated not only the morphemic but also the syllabic structure can sometimes be fully conveyed (cf. an-f/-, es-cort -, d/recf--, ex-pres/d-enfeKC--).
In many a case, however, the lingual form of the source language words is only partly conveyed in the target language. This happens when the common word is borrowed by each of the two languages in question from different source languages or when its lingual form is predetermined by the orthographic peculiarities of the target language: anti-alcoholic , music , constitution , zoology , atomic weight , chemical process , national opera theatre .
The literal translation in all the examples above provides an equivalent rendering of the lexical meaning of each language unit despite the augmentation in the number of morphemes/syllables in the target language (cf. atom/--, ///--).
Close to the literal method of translating or rather reproduction is the so-called way of translator's transcription by means of which partly the orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source language lexemes/words is conveyed: archbishop , card /, European , Muscovite /, organized , stylized , fnerapeuf/.
Literal translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source language lexemes or sentences when their lingual form accidentally coincides with some other target language lexemes having quite different meanings: artist , (rarer ); decoration , (and not ); matrass (and not ); replica (and not ), etc. Hence, literal translating has some restrictions in its employment and does not always help to render the lexical meaning of words or even morphemes
having often even an identical lingual form (spelling) in the source language and in the target language.
2. Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful , fearless , helpless , incorrect , mistrust ' (), superprofit , non-interference , weightlessness etc.
All the words above are practically translated at the lexico-morphological level, as their lexical meanings and morphological stems are identical to those of the English words (cf. help-less -, mis-trust -', super-profit -, etc.).
The overwhelming majority of other words, when translated verbally do not preserve their structure in the target language. That is explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages: abundantly , bank (), cliff (, ), myself , /; automatic machine/rifle, high/tall, writer (author), /muto get/grow red, etc..
Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form.
Thus, the Ukrainian word can have the following equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic machine; 2. slot-machine; 3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly, the Englsih word ban/cwhen out of a definite context may have the following equivalent variants in Ukrainian: 1. (); 2. ; 3. /; 4. ; 5. ; 6. , (.); 1. ( ). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun bank in Ukrainian can be, naturally, only.
Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, cf: / am reading now is not but ; never say die is not but ; to grow strong is not but ; to take measures is not but ; first night is not but ', etc.
Despite this, verbal translation is widely employed first of all at language level, i.e., when the lexical meaning of separate words is to be identified. A graphic example of verbal translation is presented in dictionaries which list the lexical meanings of thousands of separate words. Verbal translation is also employed for the sake of discriminating the meanings of some words at the lessons, with the aim of identifying the meaning of the unknown words (when translating sentences or passages). The student like any other person eager to know the name of an object or action/quality of the object, etc., employs verbal translation too when asking: What is the English for / ? What is the English for /, ? What is the Ukrainian for cranberry/mistletoe? etc.
3. Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. This way of translation is often employed both consciously and subconsciously by students in the process of translating alien grammatical constructions/word forms. Sometimes students at the initial stage of learning a foreign language may employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly common phrases or sentences, which are structurally different from their equivalents in the native tongue. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language. To achieve faithfulness various grammtical in translation, word-for-word variants are to be corrected to avoid various grammatical violations made by the inexperienced students. Cf. You are right to begin with*BU , instead of /, / .
3. The interlinear1 way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units. For example, the sentence Who
1 Interlinear (from Latin interlineare) i.e., written/printed between the lines.
took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: ?
In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered with the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: ? / ? The choice of any of the transformed variants is predetermined by the aim of the translation, by the circumstances under which the translating/interpreting is performed or by the requirements of style (for example, in order to avoid the unnecessary repetition of the same form of expression/structure close to each other).
Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted by the particularities of word forms, by the word order or by the structural form of the source language units, which are usually word-combinations or sentences in the passage/work under translation.
As can be seen, the Ukrainian variants of the English sentence above (Who took my book?) bear no traces of interference on the part of the English language with its rigid word order in each paradigmatic kind of sentences. Neither is there any peculiar English word-combination transplanted to the Ukrainian sentences, as it often occurs in word-for-word translations. Hence, various transformations in interlinear translations, like in literary translations, are inevitable and they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the source language and in the target language. This can be seen from the following examples: The student is being asked now . She said she would come , . It will have been done by then / . His having been decorated is unknown to me ( ).
Transformations are also inevitable when there exists no identity in the form of expressing the same notion in the source language and in the target language: a trip ; to ski; to participate ; to become a widow/ widower, to become/grow weak (feeble).
Very often transformations become also necessary in order to overcome divergences in the structural form of English syntaxemes which are predominantly analytical by their structural form, whereas their Ukrainian word-groups of the same meaning are mostly synthetic and analytico-synthetic by structure: books of my father ; Kyivstreet traffic regulations
; but: a task for next week .1
Interlinear translating is widely practised at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language. It is helpful when checking up the students' understanding of certain structurally peculiar English sense units in the passage under translation. Interlinear translations of literary works, when perfected by regular masters of the pen, may become good literary variants of the original. But interlinear translations do not convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original. While performing the interlinear translation the student tries to convey completely the content of a source language sentence, stanza or passage. He quite subconsciously analyses the passage, selects in the target language the necessary means of expression for the allomorphic and isomorphic phenomena/sense units unknown to him and only after this he performs the translation. The interlinear method of translating helps the student to obtain the necessary training in rendering the main aspects of the foreign language. Thus, he masters the means of expression pertained to the source/target language. In the example below, taken from P.B.Shelley's poem The Masque of Anarchy, the interlinear translation conveys only the main content of the poetic stanza:
Men of England, Heirs of Glory, 볿, ,
Heroes of unwritten story, () ,
Nurslings of one mighty mother, -,
Hopes of her and one another! 䳿 䳿 !
From this interlinear translation the reader can obtain a fairly correct notion of what the poet wanted to say in the stanza as a whole. But this translation does not in any way reflect the artistic beauty of Shelley's poem, i.e., the variety of its tropes, the rhythm and the rhyme, the musical sounding of the original work. Despite all that it still ranks much higher than any word-for-word translation might ever be, as it faithfully conveys not only the meaning of all notional words but also the content of different sense units, which have no structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Due to this the method of interlinear translation is practically employed when rendering some passages or works for internal office use in scientific/research centres
See more about transformations of the kind on pages 376-387 of this book.
and laboratories, in trade and other organizations and by students in their translation practice.
4. Literary Translating represents the highest level of a translator's activity. Any type of matter skilfully turned into the target language, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language.
Depending on the type of the matter under translation, this method of performance may be either literary proper or literary artistic.
Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of content and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse).
Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fiction/belles-lettres passages/works. These may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary proper or literary artistic, this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of complete content but also of the stylistic peculiarities of the passage/ work and its artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style texts.
Literary translations are always performed in literary all-nation languages and with many transformations which help achieve the ease and beauty of the original composition. The number of phrases and sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source language passage/work, neither are the same means of expression or the number and quality of stylistic devices per paragraph/ syntactic superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to achieve faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/work under translation. Transformations are also used to convey the features of style and in still greater measure the genre peculiarities of the works/passages under translation.
Literary proper/literary artistic translation of a larger passage/ work often requires linguistic, historical and other inquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, notions of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms, etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philologic or historic inquiry. So, in a verbal or word-for-word translation would be "A Word about Ihor's Regiment which does not in any way correspond to the real meaning of this title, since the author meant under
story, tale, saga, song. The word did not mean the military unit of today's armies (regiment) but troop, host, army. Therefore, the meaning of would be in Ukrainian and the whole title would sound in contemporary translation as The Tale of the Host of Ihor, which corresponds to the real meaning of the title (, , , i.e. ). That is why there exist today different translations of the title of this brilliant work. Among them are the following: 1) The Tale of the Armament of Igor. Edited and translated by Leonard Magnus. Oxford University Press, 1915.2) The Tale of Igor. Adapted by Helen de Verde. London, 1918.3) Prince Igor's Raid Against the Polovtsi. Translated by Paul Crath. Versified by Watson Kirkonnell. Saskatoon. Canada, 1947. 4) The Song of Igor's Campaign. Translated by Vladimir Nabokov. New York 1960. As can be seen, none of these titles conveys the meaning of the title fully, completely equivalently and faithfully, though some are close to it, especially that one suggested by Paul Crath (Prince Igor's Raid against the Polovtsi) and the V.Nabokov's variant The Song of Igor's Campaign.
In Soviet times this old Ukrainian literature masterpiece had an unchanged title The Lay of Igor's Host (suggested by a Georgian linguist). This translation does not differ greatly from the two mentioned above for lay is the Middle English poetic word for song.
A similar approach aimed at a possibly fullest expression of the poetic content, i.e., flavour of the title can be seen in S.Garry's translation of M.Sholokhov's novel sounding in English as rhythmic lines of a song - And Quiet Flows the Don or The Don Flows home to the Sea. The former title was used in the New York publication of the novel (1944) and the latter in its London publication that same year. It goes without saying that a verbal or word-for-word translation of the title as *The Quiet Don or *The Still Don would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title, which is strongly felt in its source language variant.
This poetic subtext of the Russian title is really expressed only in each of the two S.Garry's variants which could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel's content, into its main idea, and into the whole system of literary images of Sholokhov's work (as with the work mentioned before). It is no less difficult to convey the meaning and functions of colloquial, conversational, dialectal and other kinds of lexical units often used by many authors in their belles-lettres works. To translate them faith-
fully, one must consult reference books, dictionaries and often even the native speakers of the language, e.g.: dabster - dialectal for /; daisy-slang for something or somebody nice, beautiful, first-rate (); put up (adj.) is colloquial for ; ; ab ovo- Latin for (), , . Constant inquiries of all kinds are also necessary fo convey the expression side of the source language matter. It becomes especially imperative in versification which is explained by the condensed nature of poetic works in which thoughts and ideas are often expressed through literary means. To achieve the necessary level of faithfulness the translator has to render fully the picturesqueness, the literary images, the rhythm and the rhyme (vocalic or consorantal), the beauty of sounding of the original poem, etc. An illustration of this may be D.Palamarchuk's versified translation of W.Shakespeare's sonet CXV:
Those lines that I before have write do lie, (10) Even those that said I could not love you dearer: (11) Yet then my judgement knew no reason why (10) My most full flame should afterwards burn clearer. (11) , : (11) . (10) - , (11) . (10) The Ukrainian variant of the stanza reveals its almost complete identity with the original in the rhythmic and rhyme organization and in the number of syllables in each line. Though in the original their number alternates in reverse order (from 10 to 11) and in the translation - from 11 to 10. But this is in no way a rude violation, since the interchange takes place within the same stanza, though the translator could not fully reproduce the alternate (acbd) rhyme, which is feminine in the first (a) and third (c) lines and masculine in the second (b), and in the fourth (d) lines.
Most striking, however, are the syntactic alternations, there being no single line structurally similar to that of the original verse. All that becomes necessary because of the predominantly polysyllabic structure of Ukrainian words the number of which in the translation is only 19 as compared with 35 words in the source language. Besides, the Ukrainian stanza consists of notional words only, whereas in the original work there are also functionals (have, do, that, most, not, etc.). The notionalsform the artistic images and ideas
the number of which is somewhat larger in English. Since it was next to impossible to overcome the resistance of the source language verse, some losses in translation became inevitable. They are the result of the existing divergences in the grammatical structure or in the means of expression in the two languages, first of all in the greater number of syllables in the same words in Ukrainian, which is a tangible obstacle for the translators of poetry. That is why in order to maintain the poetic metre of the lines in the original stanza above the translator had to transform them. As a result, the number of inevitable losses in versifications is always larger than in prose translations. Nevertheless, D.Palamarchuk's versification is considered to be highly faithful and artistic, because it conveys, in the main, the following aspects of this Shakespearian sonet: its content, partly its types of rhythm and rhyme, its artistic images and tropes, as well as its picturesqueness and the pragmatic orientation/toning of the original sonet, nothing to say about its main content.
MACHINE TRANSLATION
Rendering of information from a foreign language with the help of electronic devices represents the latest development in modern translation practice. Due to the fundamental research in the systems of algorithms and in the establishment of lexical equivalence in different layers of lexicon, machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted in the main to scientific and technological information and to the sphere of lexicographic work. That is because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programmes elaborated by linguistically trained operators. Besides, preparing programmes for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, whereas the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level, i.e., at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the target language. Considerably greater difficulties, which are insurmountable for machine translators, present morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.). No smaller obstacles for machine translation are also syntactic units (word-combinations and sentences) with various means of connection between their components/parts. Besides, no present-day electronic devices performing translation possess the necessary lexical, grammatical and stylistic memory to provide the required stand-
ard of correct literary translation. Hence, the frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the target language. As a result, any machine translation of present days needs a thorough proof reading and editing. Very often it takes no less time and effort and may be as tiresome as the usual hand-made translation of the same passage/work.1 A vivid illustration to the above-said may be the machine translated passage below. It was accomplished most recently in an electronic translation centre and reflects the latest achievement in this sphere of mental activity. The attentive student will not fail to notice in the italicized components of Ukrainian sentences several lexical, morphological and syntactic/structural irregularities, which have naturally to be corrected in the process of the final elaboration of the passage by the editing translator. Compare the texts below and find the inexactitudes in all sentences of the Ukrainian translation.
1. Communications and the EC
2. Public relations and telecom
munications must work hand in
hand to enable Europe really to
become one community. Martin
Bangemann looks to the 21st
century.
3. Communications have been
the driving force behind the
creation and growth of global
companies.
4. The European Commission
(EC) has expressed one vision
for the future of Europe in its
White Paper on Growth Com
petitiveness and Employment-
the Challenges and Ways
forward into the 21 st Century.
5. This document addresses
1. EC
2.
,
.
21st .
3.
.
4. (EC)
, -
21- .
5.
1 .. . - .: , 1983.
the facts that, in the last 20 years, the European economy's rate of growth has declined from 4% to 2,5 % per year; unemployment has steadily risen; the investment ratio has fallen by 5%; and Europe's competitive position in relation to USA and Japan has worsened in regard to employment, export market share, research and development innovation and development of new products.
, 20 () (쳿) 4% 2,5%
