Ought to , should, : , , .
ought to know the properties of the mixture.- .
2) :
Can (could) ( to) , , :
Man can subdue atomic energy.- .
I can handle the rheostat. - .
can - :
Electric energy generated at the power station can be transmitted over long distances.- , , .
one can :
Using a transformer one can transform power at low voltage into power at high voltage and vice versa.- , .
can to be able (to):
Any moving object is able to do work. - .
May (might) ( to) : , , :
You may touch the wire, as the circuit is open. - , . . .
may can:
One kilogramme of Uranium may produce 20 million kilowatt-hours of electricity.- 20 - .
may , , : , :
may finish his work today.- , (), .
11. , , , , :
If we are to fly to other planets we shall have to design a gigantic spacecraft. The conditions there must be as close to those of the Earth as possible so that we will not have to worry about all the usual hardships of space travel.
The capability of man as a space researcher should be the subject of close examination. The problem of overload is to come first. Depending on its direction it is to be classified as longitudinal, transverse, or perpendicular. Next, the problem of weightlessness is to be considered.
Each spaceman must know the design of his own craft, and he must be able to maintain the systems during the flight. If some unforeseen situation develops he should know where to look for the breakdown, and should be able to remove its cause if the crew is to feel confident during the flight and experiments.
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12. , :
1. Atomic nuclei can interact with neutrons, electrons, and gamma radiation. 2. As we should infer from the vigour with which its constituents combine, water is a very stable substance. 3. The current can flow through a wire only when the circuit is closed. 4. The magnitude of electrical current may vary from a minute amount to a very large quantity. 5. In the ammeter the current which is to be measured flows between terminals A and B. 6. Speaking about the structure of the atom one should remember that the proton is smaller but heavier than the electron. 7. Only very little current should flow through the voltmeter to operate it and its mechanism must be very delicate and fine. 8. To tear away from the liquid the molecule which leaves it should have a large amount of kinetic energy. 9. Elastic limit is the point beyond which one should not attempt deforming the body if it is to return to its original condition. 10. The convocation of international scientific conferences, which are to be attended by scientists from different countries and belonging to different schools, can undoubtedly promote the development of science. 11. The investment in an atomic reactor must be high, but the running cost is so low that something like a large tanker can be run as cheaply on atomic energy as on conventional fuel.
13. , :
1. Working with picric acid one must remember of its explosive nature. 2. Our scientists had to solve the problem of controlling chain reactions. 3. The nature of the raw material must be taken into consideration in the selection of a method of its analysis. 4. One can obtain better results if the solution is slightly heated. 5. A voltmeter may be connected between any two points whose voltage difference is to be measured. 6. You ought to know the properties of the ingredients. 7. There must be a greater number of turns of wire on the field magnets to produce a magnetic field of adequate strength. 8. If "water gas" is to be used as a source of pure hydrogen, carbon monoxide must be removed. 9. One must remember that any reaction is theoretically reversible. 10. If we are to convert a gas into a liquid, we must increase the attraction of the molecules for one another. 11. The unit of heat should not be confused with the degree of temperature. 12. This explosive may be either a liquid or a solid.
14. , , :
1. In the past the island must have been inhabited by some primitive tribe but now it has obviously been deserted. 2. The Moon, with its soft surface like damp sand, might have been designed for descending spacecraft. 3. Under such an assumption they ought to have arrived at completely different conclusions. At least they might have. 4. With our present-day technology such phenomena could not have been observed in the laboratory; what was registered must, in fact, have been due to some malfunctioning of the recorder. 5. It is difficult to figure out what actually happened. They may have changed their minds at the last moment and may have set out in a different direction. Or else, they might be repelled by the idea of loneliness, and could have made an attempt to return. 6. According to his hypothesis, individual men cold have covered the distance between the two continents but would never have risked to take their families along. 7. His idea was that these cosmic objects should have originated under such harsh conditions that no analogy might be valid.
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15. , should:
Thus the following requirements were suggested:
1) the central adding and multiplying apparatus of the computing machine should be numerical, rather than on a basis of measurement.
2) These mechanisms should depend on electronic tubes rather than on the basis of mechanical relays.
3) The entire sequence of operations should be laid out on the machine itself so that there should be no human intervention from the time the data were entered until the final results should be taken off, and all logical decisions necessary for this should be built into the machine itself.
4) The machine should contain an apparatus for the storage of data which should record them quickly, hold them firmly, read them quickly, erase them quickly, and then be immediately available for the storage of new material.
16. , :
According to some authors, intelligent life on any planet should develop exponentially, with all the curves going infinitely upwards. The Earth's civilization has already reached a stage at which we have to abmit that, with this trend of development, mankind may face a really grave critical situation in the future, as the resources of this planet are inherently exhaustible.
What alternative is mankind to choose under these circumstances, in order to survive as a civilization? Undoubtedly, an end must be put to the anarchic development of the productive forces, t the uncontrolled growth of the population, to the barbarous treatment of nature. Naturally these urgent tasks facing the world can be successfully accomplished only with the establishment of a scientifically organized world community, that is, with the triumph of communism throughout the world. Yet, until then, no effort should be spared in trying to handle the present-day situation as best we can.
It is already obvious that the continuing growth of the productive forces would, before too long, make this planet unsuitable for life as a result of heat and waste pollution of the environment, overpopulation and the like. This prospect makes some authors in the West speak of an urgent need to put a stop to unbounded development of the productive forces and establishing a stringent control over them.
However, it can hardly be imagined that a civilization (the Earth's civilization, for one) would consciously restrict itself to a purely qualitative development and abstain from any quantitative expansion. Such a situation would seem most improbable indeed. For example, can a decree be passed that space exploration shall be abandoned and no use shall be made of potentially unlimited resources which are to be found outside this planet? Or, who should ban utilizing outer space for accommodating the industries adversely affecting the Earth's ecology? Clearly, once brought to life by the technological progress, space exploration cannot be discontinued and is to be carried on for the benefit of those living on the planet Earth.
17. , :
1. However useful it may be, it cannot be employed to advantage unless it can be obtained in adequate quantities and at reasonable price. 2. The full five names do not have to be specified. 3. For other types of signals the carrier level may have to be increased. 4. In order to make the satellite a whole number of highly involved scientific and engineering problems had to be solved. 5. There will inevitably be components that cannot be reduced entirely to physically measurable quantities and so will have to be evaluated subjectively. 6. The women were not allowed to take their tea breaks until she had left. 7. Bad news should be broken gently and good news all at once. 8. Such a corrupt and despotic government must in itself be weak just when a government ought to be strong. 9. This latter case is considerably more difficult to represent, since all subcomponents of a program will need to be activated. 10. Special techniques have had to be advised for solving the problem. 11. They will, in general, have to be content with the data available. 12. If computers are ever to gain wide acceptance for process control they must be understood by the people who have to operate them. For this reason they should be kept as simple as possible. 13. He may have to supply judgement to cover those aspects of the problem which could not be covered by the research. 14. If a physiologist, who knows no mathematics, works together with a mathematician who knows no physiology, the one will be unable to state his problem in terms that the other can manipulate, and the second will be unable to put the answers in any form that the first can understand.
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18. , :
EQUILIBRIUM
With what can we associate the word "equilibrium"? We ought to know that the term applies equally well to a motor-car moving along a straight road at a constant speed. From a scientific point of view an object can be in equilibrium not only when it is standing motionless, but also when it is moving in a straight line at constant speed. On the other hand it would not be in equilibrium if it were increasing speed or slowing down or provided it were going around a corner.
Evidently, when there are no forces pulling or pushing a body, that body must always be in equilibrium. However, objects with forces acting on them may also be in equilibrium. But, then, the forces must balance; that is, their vector sum is to equal zero. Thus, in the case of the speeding automobile there are forces acting, but they balance each other in pairs. The pull of gravity downward is counteracted by the push of the road upward. The driving force supplied by the motor is balanced by air resistance and other frictional forces. However, as the driving force supplied by the motor is greater than the frictional resistance, the car is accelerated.
But sometimes an object may not be in equilibrium even though the vector sum of all the forces is zero. It may have a tendency to rotate unless all the forces are applied at a single point, or unless the tendency to rotate in one direction balances the tendency to rotate in the opposite.
Thus the second condition for equilibrium is that the tendency to rotate should be zero. There are always two requirements for equilibrium: first, the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body should be zero; and, second, there must be no tendency to rotate, that is, the tendency to rotate the body in one direction must be balanced by the tendency to rotate it in the opposite direction.
We have to point out the importance of equilibrium in any engineering design and construction. For example, if a house is to stand, each of its parts must evidently be in equilibrium.
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IV. I.
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to play playing ,
to have having ,
to plan planning ,
, , .
Present Participle , -:
Taking the book he promised to return it soon.- , .
Perfect Participle , -.
Having taken the book, he went away.- ,
:
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1. (?) , - . I , , :
Conflicting reports have been published. () (: ).
A number of animals living in the soil feed of plants.- , (: ), .
2. (? ? ? . .) I when , while , , . ( -, -, - .), , ( ) , , , , ( , ), :
(When) reading books I make notes.- (: ) , .
This universal motor was adopted (as) being more economical.- , () .
( ), , , . , i n g- , , , , :
Water, having weight and occupying space, is a form of matter.- , , .
We have used the simpler method, eliminating questioning.- , .
3. I , , , , :
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allowing for - ,
assuming that - ,
beginning with -
judging b -
sking of (for) - ( )
broadly (generally) sking -
strictly speaking -
roughly speaking -
, :
Putting it mildly, the experiment was not conducted properly.- , .
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1. I , . be, , . Continuous:
We are developing a new program.- () .
2. be , I, , be , , .
The question is confusing. - ().
I
Participle I ( ) . (Indefinite Active) () (), , , :
- Indefinite , ;
Being invited to the conference he left for Kiev.- , .
- Perfect - ( ) ;
Having been warmed to 0 C the ice began to melt.- , .
- Passive - , , , .
The property depends on the substances being used. - , ( ).
19. - ing, :
1. The molecules of a gas are moving about freely. 2. Knowing the volume, the pressure, and the temperature of the gas, we can determine the state of its mass. 3. At the beginning of the century scientists succeeded in breaking the nucleus of the atom by attacking it with tiny particles flying with a great speed. 4. Being taken in proper proportion hydrogen and oxygen combine forming water. 5. The ammeter is a measuring device. 6. The forces acting between atoms within a molecule are very strong. 7. When speaking of water, we must remember that it is composed of tiny particles its molecules. 8. Having been detained by a snow storm, the liner was three days late. 9. I was told of their having been sent to the rescue operation. 10. He had good hopes of being sent to fulfilling this mission, and therefore, before returning home he spent some hours in preparing the plane for flight, trying it again and again.
20. , I :
1. Another factor influencing the level of detail is the progress reporting requirements. 2. Using the energy of the atom we produce electric energy at atomic power plants. 3. Conversion from one oxidation state to another can be accomplished readily by common oxidizing and reducing agents. 4. It is quite possible that goodness, being' a property of a man, is not conditioned by nature. 5. Electronic computers perform both arithmetic and logical operations, making it possible to control the process under rather complicated conditions. 6. System design progresses through several stages, becoming more detailed in each stage. 7. Growing science accumulates examples of quantitative relations. 8. The yield was 12% of the dried wood, varying with the amount of hydrochloric acid used. 9. When being pure, water is a colourless liquid. 10. Considering the limited scope of the method, it has yet been used by comparatively few workers. 11. The chemical and physical properties of these dimers are being studied. 12. Sometimes such experiments, even if performed only in the imagination, are convincing even to mathematicians.
21. , I , , :
1. Generally speaking, a liquid having a free surface is one on whose surface there is absolutely no pressure. 2. A gram of water is proved to change exactly to a gram of ice when freezing and to a gram of water vapour when evaporating. 3. This means that a space program must be flexible and diverse, making it possible to explore completely new fields. 4. Strictly speaking, this somewhat arbitrary division may be justified taking into account an imperfect technique. 5. More or less saturated chloraparaffines are formed, depending on the temperature of reaction. 6. However, speed and power consumption specifications for the devices can be misleading. 7. This country embracing over four millions (of) square miles, being thus larger than the whole of Europe, contained but about two millions (of) inhabitants.
22. , I:
1. Having eliminated the other classes of earthquakes we are left with the remaining class - tectonic. 2. A new technique having been worked out, the yields rose. 3. Peter was absent, having quitted the army to hurry on reinforcements. 4. Having been taught Latin by an Englishman, and having travelled to Western Europe, he realized the vital importance to Russia of attracting the foreigners into the Muscovite Empire. 5. Having seen the way in which decision theory handles the future, and having examined some of the difficulties inherent in this approach, we should give further consideration to what is altogether another line of attack.
