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I.
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Radium was discovered in 1898 (by the Curies).- 1898 . ( ).
to be :
to be + Participle II
- to be constructed:
| Present | Past | Future | Future in the Past | |
| Indefinite | The bridge is constructed. | The bridge was constructed. | The bridge will be constructed. | The bridge would be constructed. |
| Continuous | The bridge is being constructed. | The bridge was being constructed. | ||
| Perfect | The bridge has been constructed. | The bridge had been constructed. | The bridge will have been constructed. | The bridge would have been constructed. |
The bridge was constructed last year. - .
by:
This music was composed by Beethoven. - .
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Every year we build new roads in this region. . ( )
New roads are built in this region every year. . ( )
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Someone has spilt some wine on the table-cloth. - . ( )
Some wine has been spilt on the table-cloth. . ( )
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They staged Othello last year. . ( )
Othello was staged last year. . ( )
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They were building a new school in our town. . ( )
A new school was being built in our town. . ( )
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We shall pack the suitcases in ten minutes. . ( )
The suitcases will be packed in ten minutes. . ( )
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He was invited to the meeting.- .
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Apples are being sold in this shop. .
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The book is much spoken about.- .
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They were invited by my friend. .
1. , :
1. The problem was first recognized in the 19th century. 2. Later an idea was suggested to apply it to practical things. 3. Many possibilities for practical applications were analysed. 4. Some of these were tested by experiment. 5. The experimental results were not generally accepted, and the idea was discarded. 6. Then other consequences were deduced and a new model proposed. 7. Recently the model has been modified and is now being used in many practical situations. 8. The discovery of radium was followed by a number of important inventions. 9. The current is measured with the ammeter. 10. This problem may be approached from different standpoints.
2. , :
1. Some people are easily influenced by other people's opinions. 2. The distribution of plants is greatly affected by local conditions. 3. The seminar was attended by all the participants. 4. His lectures are always followed by heated discussions. 5. In several areas of research the efforts of scientists are joined by those of philosophers and sociologists. 6. At the university students are offered a curriculum of study which is followed by a test and the award of a degree. 7. The members of the laboratory were consulted prior to this successful operation. 8.
He was not offered any help. 9. We have been given all the necessary information. 10. The institute was promised financial support. 11. The speaker was asked a lot of questions. 12. The teachers are recommended to give the passage as a talk. 13. If the mixture is allowed to.stay overnight, it gradually decomposes. 14. At that time girls were taught hardly more than three R's (reading, writing and 'rithmetic).
3. , :
Research that is directed toward the solution of problems can be divided into two major classes: evaluative and developmental. An evaluative problem is one in which the alternative courses of action are completely specified in advance and the solution consists of selecting the best of these. A developmental problem is concerned with the search for (and perhaps construction or synthesis of) instruments which yield a course of action that is better than any available at the time.
In discussing the phases of research we shall consider each of the types of research that have been identified and explore their methodological differences and similarities. But the basis of these comparisons will be laid throughout by a detailed consideration of evaluative problem solving.
As it will be seen in some detail, applied research has the advantage of being able to formulate criteria of its own efficiency in terms of the objectives for which the problem is being investigated. Because of lack of specific objectives, in pure research such criteria cannot be formulated as explicitly. Consequently, in pure research many implicit assumptions are made about the conditions under which its results will be applied. In applied research these assumptions are frequently found to be unrealistic. To elaborate a previous example, in pure research the seriousness of various errors can seldom be measured. In applied problems, however, there are few cases in which this condition holds. Hence different estimation procedures are required in applied science, and serious questions about the estimating procedures of pure science are raised. This fact is not generally appreciated; to the contrary, it is commonly believed that pure research tends to be methodologically superior to applied research. Hence, the general approach of this book may be contrary to the intuition and beliefs of many.
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We shall first discuss the methodological aspects of each phase of research in an applied context, and then consider what can be learned from this representation that can be used in the pure research context.
4. , , :
Automation is often referred to as a new subject and its various aspects have not yet all been paid adequate attention to. Thus, for example, its commercial aspects have been only recently fully appreciated. Many problems arising from the impact of automation on national and world economy have not even been dealt with. It is, therefore, of paramount importance that general public should be informed both of its technological and social aspects.
There is hardly any aspect of human life that would not be affected by the changes that automation will bring about. Unfortunately, there is relatively little factual material available for analysing the consequences of automatization. Indeed, most economists are not yet fully aware of the problems that might arise in the process of automatization. The effect of these developments on the trend of prices, capital investments, balance of payments have not yet been fully appreciated. These subjects should be adequately dealt with in foreseeable future.
5. , :
1. This atmospheric interference has often been made reference to by radio and TV commentators. 2. Unfortunately no advantage was taken of the fast reaction rate. 3. So far no notice has been taken of the obvious advantage of this technique. 4. His curiosity was excited when reference was made to still earlier publications. 5. Recently the problemhas been given close consideration in connection with a new space project. 6. Mention has already been made of the fact that gold is slowly attacked by these substances. 7. Several outstanding contributions have been made to the study of crystal growth. 8. There is no doubt that in the course of further scientific development extensive use will be made of modern computing machines and electronic devices.
6.
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We (the author, they, etc.) have found that... It has been found that...
1. I must admit that... 2. He has found that... 3. Everybody accepts that 4. I believe that... 5. The author hopes that... 6. Scientists sometimes say that... 7. Most people assume that... 8. Physicists recognize nowadays that...
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7. , :
COAL
It has been proved that all coals had their origin in the vegetable matter of prehistoric forests. The woody fiber and other vegetable matter were transformed into peat by fermentation due to bacteria. During this process, a great part of the oxygen and hydrogen was eliminated, while the amount of carbon remained practically the same. Subsequently the peaty matter was changed into coal by a process of destructive distillation, which had been caused by great pressure and high temperature. The differences in types of coal can be easily explained by different conditions during this process of evolution. Among these variable conditions by which the formation of coal had been affected the following may be mentioned: time, depth of the bed below the surface of the earth, and amount of disturbance of the bed due to movements of the earth.
Foreign matter was introduced during this movement of the earth. Coal is composed of the following principal elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. However, these are not present solely in their elementary state, but also in various combinations, principally moisture and volatile matter. Consequently, coal is classified into various types according to its constituents; some of these types will be mentioned below.
Peat is an intermediate condition between wood and coal. It is often used as fuel in the Temperate Zone, where it is found in large quantities in the swampy regions. It is commonly cut into blocks and dried in the air.
Bituminous coal is the name which is usually given to coal containing more than 20 per cent volatile matter. Bituminous coal is not susceptible to spontaneous combustion, although care must be exercised in its storage. Since there is a wide range of variation in the characteristics of the bituminous coals, they have been divided commercially into the following classes: coking, cannel, and non-coking. Coking coal, upon being burned gives off considerable gas and tends to fuse together in a pasty mass (coke). Cannel coal has a high percentage of volatile hydrocarbons, ignites easily and is so valuable as a gas-producing coal that it is rarely burned to produce steam.
Non-coking coal does not coke upon being burned and is very extensively used as a fuel to produce steam.
