6. A very important development during the Middle Ages was the hospital. Hospitals appeared in Ceylon early in the 5thcentury B. C. and in India in 260 B.C. Hospitals were founded during the Middle Ages in Italy, France, England, Spain and other European countries. The number of hospital beds was not always an indication of hospital size, usually great beds were used and 4-6 patients were put on one bed.
7. Hospitals were founded to treat the sick people. Another development during the Middle Ages was the foundation of Universities. Many of the great European Universities were founded during the 13 and 14thcenturies. Biological sciences were taught in the universities. Students studied the human body and some diseases.
Rapid scientific advantages
8. Great discoveries were made in the 19thcentury. One of them was the discovery of cocaine, which was very effective as a local anaesthetic. Surgeons could inject cocaine into a certain part of the body and deaden () the pain in that part during the operation. When the problem of pain was solved, surgeons could carry out long and complicated operations.
9. A very important discovery was made by the French chemist, physicist and bacteriologist Louis Pasteur. We know him as the originator of the germ (, ) theory of disease. He discovered fermentation and developed the process of pasteurization (). Louis Pasteur produced the theory that disease and infection were caused by germs and he proved that they were spread through the air. He found that germs could be killed in the liquids by heat and the term pasteurization was given to the process.
10. Rudolf Virchov became known for his work in cellular pathology, and Herman von Helmholtz for his invention of the ophthalmoscope () in 1850. Lord Joseph Lister introduced antiseptic surgery in 1867, and Wilhelm K. Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895. He placed his hand in front of the apparatus and saw the rays passed through the hand and cast a shadow of bones on the screen. As these rays were unknown to him, he called them X-rays.
The Developments of the 20thcentury
11. During the first seventy years of the 20thcentury many discoveries were made in the treatment and prevention of disease. In 1901 Karl LandSteiner discovered the blood groups. Some diseases are not caused by germs or infections but by the lack of certain substances in our food. The discovery of vitamins in 1912 was very important to provide people with a properly balanced diet. In 1922 Sir Frederick Banting found that insulin was very effective against diabetes.
12. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Dr. Alexander Fleming who became the founder of the modern science of antibiotics. Penicillin was used in hospitals to reduce infections in wounds during the Second World War. Streptomycin and a series of anti-infection drugs were discovered after penicillin. All these drugs are known as antibiotics.
13. A drug known as sulphanilamide was discovered in 1935. It became the first of the miracle drugs ( ) which gave immediate and amazing results in the treatment of many infectious diseases including pneumonia.
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14. During the two world wars, great advances were made in the field of plastic surgery, in which skin, bone or muscles was taken from one part of the body and then was transplanted to a badly injured area in another part.
15. Great progress was made in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, bacterial and viral infections, kidney disorders and other main causes of death and disability ( ). The individual of today will live longer and healthfully than ever before.
TOPIC 55. PAVLOV I.P.
1. Read the text
Pavlov I.P. MAN AND SCIENTIST
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14, in 1849 in Ryazan. When he was still a very little boy he helped his father on his farm. His father taught him to read books.
In 1870 Pavlov entered Petersburg University to study natural sciences. Soon he decided to become a physiologist himself.
During his work at the Academy Pavlov discovered some new facts about the blood pressure.
In 1881 Pavlov got married. His wife was a wonderful help and companion to him. Their marriage was a very happy one.
In 1890 Pavlov began to lecture on physiology in the Military Academy. Many of his ideas were new to the students and he was a very popular lecturer. His lectures were simple and clear. He didnt use notes since his memory was wonderful. He allowed students to interrupt him and gladly answered their questions.
Pavlov studied the work of the digestive system. He made many experiments on dogs. He had to make operations on dogs and as he loved animals he treated his dogs with great kindness and they showed no fear of him. Pavlov never operated unless it was necessary and he always used anaesthetics. He was a very skilful surgeon and his dogs generally recovered very quickly. Pavlov made great contribution to medical science.
When he was an old man of seventy-four he worked as hard as ever. He rose at 7 oclock each morning, ate a simple breakfast of tea and bread-and-butter. He worked nine or ten hours a day.
A few years before his death he addressed the youth of our country:
1. Be systematic in your work.
2. Never try to hide the defects in your knowledge.
3. Never imagine that you know everything.
4. Remember that the important thing is enthusiasm. Science demands of a man his whole life.
Pavlov, the great Russian scientist, died on February 27, 1936 at the age of eighty-six.
2. Proof these statements
1. He was a popular lecturer.
2. He was a skilful surgeon.
3. Pavlov made contribution to medical science.
4. Pavlov was a hard-working man.
3. What principles do these people follow?
1. Tom always does his work with pleasure and interest.
2. If Mary doesnt know something she always asks questions about it.
3. Max is a good specialist in his work. But he keeps on learning.
4. Anton never passes on to the next work until he has finished the previous one.
4. Speak about Pavlov I.P.
TOPIC 56. PIROGOV N.I.
1. Compose the text about N. I. Pirogov by putting the words into the right order. Read the second part of the text and translate it.
Part I
1. Nikolai Pirogov, a, great, Russian, is, scientist.
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2. was, he, in, born, on, Moscow, November 25, 1810.
3. helped, his devotion to science, Pirogov, obstacles, to overcome; and in 1836, already, was, he, a, of surgery, professor.
4. There is, medicine, no, surgery, without, and surgery, no, anatomy, without! was his motto.
5. Pirogov, isolated, generalized, ideas, and, of the surgery, experience, of his days; and gave, a, foundation, it scientific.
6. produced, Pirogov, complete, the first, exact, and, work, in the world, on anatomy, which, Topographic Anatomy, entitled, he.
7. this Atlas, to train, generations, helped, several, of surgeons, and has not, his, lost, to this day, value.
Part II
8. Pirogov wrote 24 major works and delivered 146 communications to scientific societies.
9. This Russian scientist contributed greatly to the fields of biology, medicine, anatomy pathology, surgery.
10. He was the first who divided the Achilles tendon, performed osteoplastic operations, operated on the intestines in cases of bullet wounds.
11. Pirogov took part in wars where he helped lots of wounded.
12. To save wounded limbs Pirogov arrived at the idea of the rigid plaster cast.
13. The prominent surgeon was the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia during operations.
14. Thanks to the discoveries made by Nikolai Pirogov, in the 19thcentury the real development in the field of surgery began.
2. Choose the right variant
1.Pirogov was
a. a physiologist
b. a biologist
c. a surgeon
d. a lecturer
e. a scientist
2. helped Pirogov to overcome obstacles.
a. money
b. friends
c. devotion to science
d. societies
3.Pirogov generalized
a. all medical knowledge
b. major scientific works
c. experience of surgery
4.Pirogov produced the work on
a. medicine
b. surgery
c. anatomy
d. physiology
3. Ask the questions to the underlined words
1. Pirogov wrote 24 major works.
2. This Russian scientist contributed to biology, medicine, anatomy, surgery.
3. He performed osteoplastic operations and operations on the intestines.
4. He helped lots of wounded during the wars.
5. The prominent surgeon used anaesthesia during operations.
4. Translate into English
1. .
2. .
3. . .
4. .
5. ?
6. ? .
7. .
TOPIC 57. BOTKIN S.P.
1. Read the text
S. P. Botkin
S. P. Botkin was born on September 17, in 1832.
After finishing one of Moscow schools, he entered the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Botkin was very interested in medicine very much and soon became one of the best students.
After graduating from the Medical Faculty in 1855 Botkin went to the Crimea where he worked as a physician at the Simferopol Military Hospital under the direction of the well-known Russian surgeon Pirogov.
In 1860 Botkin began to work at the Medico-Surgical Academy in Petersburg. In 1861 he became a professor of the Therapeutic Clinic at the Academy. He worked hard. He wanted to have a model clinic at the Academy. Botkin organized a well-equipped physiological laboratory for clinical experiments. Botkin was a brilliant therapeutist and diagnostician. One of his greatest achievements was his theory of nervosism, which is the most progressive theory in clinical medicine.
Botkin was not only a brilliant scientist but an excellent teacher too. Many of his pupils became famous physicians and worked at Russian universities as professors.
Botkin was also one of the founders of military therapeutists. He worked at the front during the Russo-Turkish war giving much of his time to the organization of medical aid.
During his whole life he never stopped working for the good of the Russian people. His name is one of the most famous names in medicine and it will always be remembered in the history of Russian science.
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2. Find English equivalents in the text
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
3. Put the sentences into the logical order
1. There he organized a well-equipped laboratory for clinical experiments.
2. He was a founder of the military therapeutists.
3. His name will always be remembered in the history of Russian science.
4. Botkin finished one of Moscow schools.
5. He was an excellent teacher.
6. He was interested in medicine.
7. One of his greatest achievements was his theory of nervosism.
8. He never stopped working for the good of Russian people.
9. He studied at the medical faculty of Moscow university.
10. In the 60s of the 19thcentury Botkin became a professor of the Therapeutic Clinic at the Academy.
11. Many of his students became famous physicians.
12. He helped wounded people during the Russo Turkish war.
13. When he graduated from the university he worked at the hospital in Crimea.
14. Botkin was a therapeutist, a diagnostician and a scientist
4. Speak about S.P. Botkin
TOPIC 58. HIPPOCRATES
1.Study the new words. Write down the words into your work books.
1. be born
2. practice the art of medicine
3. writings
4. HippocraticCollection
5. modern
6. famousoath
7. practitioner
8. attentively
9. givehimhelp
10. createmedicine
11. on the basis of experience
12. freefromsuperstition
13. paymuchattention
14. setfractures
15. trephine
16. be called
2.Translate the text about Hippocrates using the new words.
1. .
2. .
3. , , .
4. .
5. , .
6. 100 .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .
11. .
12. .
13. , , . 14. .
15. .
16. .
3.Correct the mistakes
1. Hippocrates was a son of a teacher.
2. Hippocrates studied the art.
3. Hippocratic collection consists of one big book.
4. He taught his pupils music and literature.
5. Hippocrates never used medicines.
6. Hippocrates is called Father of surgery.
4.Continuethesentences
1. Hippocrates practiced
2. Hippocrates was a good
3. Hippocrates taught his pupils to
4. Hippocrates freed medicine
5. He trephined
6. He set
7. Hippocrates paid much
5.Answer the questions
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1. Where was Hippocrates born?
2. What did Hippocrates study?
3. What writings of Hippocrates do we have?
4. How does his collection begin?
5. How did Hippocrates create medicine?
6. How is Hippocrates called?
6. Speak about Hippocrates
