Background
Few civilizations have exerted a more lasting influence than that of the Celts. Their culture flourished in Europe before the Romans built their Empire and before Christianity took root, and, yet, it remains a living force to this day. Celtic languages are still spoken in Brittany, in Ireland, and in parts of the British Isles, and the visual appeal of early Celtic design remains as potent as ever.
The sheer scope of the Celtic world may surprise some people, for it endured for over a millennium - from around the 6th century B.C. to the 9th century A.D. During this lengthy period, the fortunes of the Celts ebbed and flowed, and although they always remained a group of loosely knit tribes and never formed a coherent nation, their power extended over most parts of Europe at one time or another. At their peak, they were mighty enough to overrun the strongholds of Rome (386 B.C.) and Delphi (279 B.C.). Even when their military strength waned, the impact of their culture lingered on, imprinting itself on the style of early Christian artworks.
The precise origins of the Celts are shrouded in mystery. The earliest mention of the word keltoi, used by Greek writers to describe a people living in the Upper Danube region, occurred in the 6th century B.C. Despite this, it is clear that certain facets of Celtic civilization date back much further. Many authorities have seen rudimentary traces of it in the late Hallstatt era or, more exactly, in the Hallstatt D period (c. 600 B.C. - c. 450 B.C.). Its full development, however, took place in the following era, the La Tène period, which lasted from c. 450 B.C. to c. 50 B.C. and when the true blossoming of Celtic Art occurred.
Both Hallstatt and La Tène refer to important prehistoric sites, which have yielded vital archaeological evidence. Hallstatt is situated in Austria, some 225 km southwest of Vienna. In ancient times, this remote spot was a thriving commercial centre, the result of the salt mines in the area. Revealing clues about the community that worked here have been unearthed from Hallstatt's cemetery, which was discovered by Johann Georg Ramsauer in 1846. Ramsauer was a mining surveyor and, over the course of the next 17 years, he undertook detailed excavations, uncovering almost a thousand graves.
From a Celtic perspective, the most intriguing discoveries were made in Grave 994. Here, a warrior was interred along with his weapons, helmet and a wine sieve. Much attention has been focused on the man's bronze scabbard, which includes engraved depictions of horsemen and footsoldiers. Their weapons and armour relate closely to finds in other Celtic graves, and the stylized portrayal of the horses - most notably, the 'teardrop' shape of their haunches - provides a telling foretaste of the La Tène style.
The greatest finds have been discovered in Britain and France, where the druidic religion provided some cultural continuity. But traces are also found in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and Northern Italy, as well as in the countries through which the mighty river Danube flows: Hungary, Romania, Czechia, Slovakia and former Yugoslavia. Artefacts from traders have been unearthed in Scandinavia and Russia, and evidence of Celtic warriors, perhaps mercenaries, exists in Central Italy, Sicily, Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and North Africa.
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A high proportion of the articles in these places were either imported or were made locally by foreign craftsmen. Even so, they indicate the early presence in the Celtic heartlands of the many and varied artistic strands, which would eventually come together to form the distinctive style that we now associate with the Celts.
Spiritual, warlike, artistic and richly literary, the Celts and the Celtic heritage embody much that we consider romantic in the complex and varied European tradition. Yet many of the facts of Celtic history are shrouded in the mists of legend. (Iain Zaczek, The Art of the Celts, Parkgate Books Ltd, 1997, pp. 7-10)
V. , (True/False):
1. The La Tené period lasted c. 500 years.
2. The Celts had an independent state.
3. Celtic languages are still spoken in some parts of the world.
4. The precise origins of the Celts are well-known.
5. Georg Ramsauer lived in the 19th century.
6. The Celts overran the strongholds of Rome in 386 B.C.
VI. / . .
VII. :
1. How many years did the Celtic world exist? When did it begin?
2. When did Celtic Art see its true blossoming?
3. What was Georg Ramsauer famous for?
4. What intriguing discoveries were made in Grave 994?
5. Where are the Celtic traces found?
6. How did foreign craftsmen contribute to Celtic Culture?
