Lecture 6. Technologies for Higher Education.
Cited from RENCI WHITE PAPER SERIES
Vol. 3, No. 1
Summary
Today's colleges and universities face numerous challenges, with rising tuition costs and pressures for educational reform. Numerous technologies are emerging that aim, in part, to address these challenges. There is provided an overview of 10 technologies and approaches that have the potential to improve higher education and enhance student learning and achievement; these include, Computerized Grading, Electronic Textbooks, Simulation Technology, Gamification, Flipped Classrooms, Active Learning Classrooms, Massive Open Online Courses, Collaborative Distance Learning Environments, the Active Learning Forum platform, and Learning Management Systems.
The Challenges
At the college and university level, current challenges include rapidly rising tuition costs and pressures for educational reform. Proponents for educational reform argue that students are disengaged from the learning process and that traditional lecture-based courses do not encourage student immersion, interaction, or critical thinking. They argue that teachers are equally disengaged from the learning process, with insufficient value placed on teaching, pressures to assign overinflated grades, and incentives to teach content only, not critical thinking skills. College students themselves appear to support the push for educational reform. Indeed, a recent McKinsey/ Chegg survey indicates that recent graduates feel unprepared for the "real world" and ill-equipped with the skills required to be competitive in today's job market. Even supporters of today's higher education system recognize the need to better engage both teachers and students in classroom learning (Gutting 2011).
Emerging Technologies to Address the Challenges
Technology has the potential to help alleviate many of the challenges facing today's higher education system, including the issues raised above. There are examined technologies that hold promise to enrich and revitalize today's higher education system and better prepare students for the 21st century. These technologies include: Computerized Grading; Electronic Textbooks (E-textbooks); Simulation Technology; Gamification; Flipped Classrooms; Active Learning Classrooms; Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs); Collaborative Distance Learning Environments; the Active Learning Forum platform; and Learning Management Systems (LMSs).
Computerized Grading
Computerized grading is not new; indeed, educators have relied on computerized grading for years, beginning with the Scantron "bubble sheet" solution for multiple choice questions (Strauss 2013). Computerized grading of written, free-form short answers or essays has not yet been fully realized but is rapidly gaining attention as a new technology for education.
Computerized grading applies the techniques of machine learning and artificial intelligence to determine statistically the probability that a human grader would give a particular grade to an essay (Winterhalter 2013). A software program does this by searching for aspects of writing such as the number of words, spelling, sentence structure, use of punctuation, average length of a word, average length of a sentence, accuracy of quotes against source material, etc. (Strauss 2013; Winterhalter 2013).
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A number of companies are developing software for computer grading. Computerized grading has received mixed reviews among educators, with headlines claiming that "Computer grading will destroy our schools" (Winterhalter 2013). Proponents, however, argue that computerized grading will cut costs, provide faster student feedback, and standardize the grading process (Strauss 2013; Winterhalter 2013; Cody 2014).
E-Textbooks
E-textbooks offer the opportunity to enhance written text with hyperlinks to additional resources, including other textbooks or readings, videos, audio feeds, and slide presentations (Murray and Perez 2011). Theoretically, e-textbooks could link students to real-world data sets or streaming sensor data and thereby empower students with data to explore graphical software packages, statistical tests, and other forms of data analysis. The goal of e-textbooks is to create a truly dynamic, interactive learning experience, in which students and teachers can simultaneously immerse themselves in the learning experience (Murray and Perez 2011; PR Newswire 2014).
E-textbooks provide greater portability at a reduced cost when compared to traditional paper textbooks, and their popularity has been growing, albeit somewhat slowly (Murray and Perez 2011). In fact, students continue to prefer traditional paper textbooks over e-textbooks, even though they have adopted other forms of digital learning, such as online course materials and discussion forums (Jabr 2013).
A number of companies specialize in the development and marketing of e-textbooks and other digital course materials, including Apple, CourseSmart, and Google.
A significant drawback regarding e-textbooks is that publishers have not adopted a common platform or standardized approaches to the creation of e-textbook material (Murray and Perez 2011). However, IBM is working with a Polish company, Wydawnictwa Cyfrowe LLC, to create a cloud-based solution to this challenge, and other solutions are likely to emerge. In terms of effectiveness, early research found that paper textbooks are associated with significant learning advantages over e-textbooks, but recent research suggests that there is less of a difference in learning outcomes between the two types of textbooks (Murray and Perez 2011; Jabr 2013). Clearly, additional research is required to fully compare electronic versus paper textbooks.
Simulation Technology
The use of simulation technology as a learning tool traces its roots to the urgent need to improve safety in the aviation industry. The premise underlying flight simulation is to create a realistic (but simulated) flying environment in order to safely train pilots. The idea dates back to the origins of modern airplanes, when pilots would be trained by sitting in the glider of a plane while facing strong winds, thus allowing the pilot to get a feel for the plane in a realistic setting. Modern flight simulation typically incorporates advanced technologies such as sensors and virtual reality displays to better simulate the "real" experience of flying, including any emergency situations that may arise. Simulation technology has since been adopted as an established training tool by the military and certain high-risk industries such as nuclear energy.
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While traditional simulation has been widely used in higher education, through activities such as role-playing, technology-based simulation has been less widely adopted, with the exception of medical education. Indeed, technology-based simulation is largely considered one of the most significant technical innovations in medical education over the past two decades, and a fairly large body of research supports its benefits in the training of medical students and resident physicians. Medical simulations often involve a combination of traditional simulation techniques, such as team-based role-playing, and technology-based simulation techniques, such as software programs that mimic real-world medical emergencies. Screen-based computer simulators and virtual reality devices are also used in medical simulations.
Simulation technology is now routinely incorporated into the curriculum of most major medical schools. Simulation technology is becoming more widely recognized as an important learning tool for several reasons (Damassa & Stiko 2010):
It actively engages students in the learning processes and allows students to practice skills and apply knowledge;
It provides flexibility in learning, with the option of slowing down (or speeding up) the learning process and/ or repeating lessons;
It provides a "safe" environment for making mistakes, and:
It allows students to engage in virtual situations that would otherwise be difficult, dangerous, or impossible to engage with.
Gamification
Game-based learning is not a new concept, and many educators routinely incorporate games into their lesson plans. "Gamification" is a relatively new concept that was coined in the early 2000s by British IT expert Nick Pelling, but only recently has it become widely used (Smith 2014). Gamification can be considered as a very specific type of simulation technology; it refers to the use of game theory and practices in the development of digital simulations for e-learning (i.e., game-informed learning) (McClarty, et al. 2012; Buck 2013; Smith 2014). Gamification is based on the theory that students will be more engaged with the learning process and will ultimately achieve greater academic success if learning is based on gaming concepts such as competition, incentives, and goal attainment. Many e-learning games are available today; some of these are targeted for individual learners, but many are intended for teams, and some have options for either individuals or teams.
Examples of popular e-learning games include Bridge Constructor. This is an iPad/iPhone app, with free and for fee versions available. The learner's job is to build stable bridges using only the provided materials, and the goal is to build, under a fixed budget, a bridge that can carry a given weight (i.e., certain number of vehicles) without collapsing. Another example is foldit. Foldit was developed by investigators at the University of Washington as a game that enables learners to participate in actual scientific research by exploring virtual protein-folding designs. Duolingo is receiving praise as a highly effective way to learn a foreign language. A number of languages are available. Learners earn points for correct answers, race against the clock, and climb levels until they reach mastery of a language. There is research supporting the effectiveness of duolingo, which is available free of charge and has been developed using a crowdsourcing business model. Gaming principles are incorporated through the use of interactive feedback, badges for completion of exercises, and scorekeeping.
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While widely popular, the effectiveness of digital games in promoting student learning is unclear; indeed, the few studies that have been conducted have demonstrated mixed effects (McClarty, et al. 2012).
Flipped Classrooms
The concepts of "flipped learning" and "Flipped Classrooms" arose circa 2007, when two high school teachers in Colorado, Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams, realized that, for a very small investment in software ($50), they could record their classroom Microsoft" PowerPoint lectures and post them online for students who were absent the day they were taught. Much to their surprise, the online, freely available lectures became popular among both students who missed the lectures and those who wanted to refresh and reinforce the lesson plan. Thus was born the concept of the Flipped Classroom, in which educators prepare online lectures and interactive lessons that students are required to review before coming to class, and class time is spent engaging in hands-on "homework," discussion, and other classroom activities. The model is such that the educator moves from "on-stage" lecturer to "on-the-side" tutor, thereby providing more personalized instruction; in this regard, flipped learning embraces several of the principles of "active learning" (see section on "Active Learning Classrooms") and the design of the MOOCs (see section on MOOCs).
Educators, including those in higher education, are embracing the Flipped Classroom. This approach has even been implemented for large courses of more than 1,000 students. Kahn Academy, for example, is believed to have been conceptualized using the flipped learning model. Formal research, albeit limited and mostly in the form of surveys, also supports the success of Flipped Classrooms.
The Flipped Classroom faces several challenges, however. One such challenge is the development of short, but high-quality, online video content that is simultaneously engaging and informativea challenge that, admittedly, is not new to educators but may be harder for them to achieve without sufficient training and time. Another challenge is that educators need training in how to best integrate the online and in-class instruction into their course curriculum. Critics argue that Flipped Classrooms are simply "condensed classrooms," which compress learning material into short pieces of summarized information that can be understood with little or no synthesis or critical thinking on the part of the student. Ironically, students also may rely strictly on the online preparatory lecture and skip the in-class activities.
Active Learning Classrooms
Active Learning Classrooms are designed to promote the concept of "active learning" into in-person classroom environments of any size, for virtually any type of course (Cotner, et al. 2013). Active learning involves the engagement of students and educators in the learning process through collaborative classroom activities and reflection. Active Learning Classrooms are engineered and designed to promote these behaviors. They feature round, computer- and network-equipped tables to accommodate small student teams, a central teaching station to promote teacher circulation around the classroom (as opposed to traditional podium lectures), and multiple computer screens placed strategically around the classroom to enhance visual learning and create a dynamic learning environment (Cotner, et al. 2013). The design of Active Learning Classrooms is intended to promote team-oriented, highly collaborative, student-driven but teacher-facilitated, hands-on interactive learning, with the goal of better preparing students for the "real world."
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While the concept of the Active Learning Classroom is not new, there is now strong evidence for the success of this type of learning environment in fostering student achievement (Walker, et al. 2008). Evidence suggests that these classrooms: are effective in promoting student learning in both small classes and larger ones; can be used for courses originally designed as traditional lecture-based courses; and are particularly effective in improving the performance of low-performing students.
The major drawback to Active Learning Classrooms is the high upfront investment, with classroom renovations costing hundreds of thousands of dollars (Cotner, et al. 2013). Another challenge is resistance among educators to implementing active learning techniques within Active Learning Classrooms. Indeed, the effective use of these classrooms and techniques requires considerable educator training and experience (Walker, et al. 2008).
MOOCs
The Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) teaching format has its roots in the philosophical approach of the Open University and the technological platform of traditional online courses (Marques 2013). Canadian educators Stephen Downes and George Siemens, both of the University of Manitoba, are credited for introducing the first predecessor to today's MOOC, with their 2008 open online course titled "Connectivism and Connective Knowledge/2008 (CCK08)" (Marques 2013). The course was offered free of charge and with open admission, and it adopted a wide variety of digital platforms, including forums, blogs, wiki pages, and other forms of social media, with the goal of creating an online community of engaged and connected students.
While CCK08 enrolled more than 2,000 students, the first truly massive MOOC was introduced in 2012 by Stanford educators Sebastian Thrun and Peter Norvig, whose "Introduction to Artificial Intelligence" course attracted more than 160,000 students, thus launching the term Massive Open Online Course or MOOC (Marques 2013).
Today, thousands of MOOCs are available through a variety of academic and commercial providers, with some offered free and others available for a fee. While the MOOCs vary in accessibility, content, approach, size, and teacher credentials, they are all true courses in the sense that they have requirements (e.g., assignments and evaluations) and are time-limited (e.g., a traditional semester). This differentiates MOOCs from other forms of distance learning such as the online lectures of Khan Academy, iTunesU, or Technology, Entertainment, and Design (TED) Talks.
MOOCs have become extremely popular; indeed, The New York Times named 2012 "The Year of the MOOC". Yet, their effectiveness, in terms of both student learning and economic soundness, is debatable. For example, critics argue that by offering free MOOCs, academic institutions are devaluing the value of a college education and undermining existing academic business models. Most organizations that offer MOOCs have yet to establish a sustainable business model, although some are subsidizing free MOOCs by charging for grading or certification credentials. Another criticism is based on student achievement. Few formal evaluations have been conducted on the effectiveness of MOOCs in promoting student achievement, and the few that have been conducted show little evidence of success, when compared to traditional in-person courses. Furthermore, MOOCs have very low retention rates, with a study from the University of Pennsylvania finding that only about 4% of student enrollees actually complete the course.
