- , ( ) . : . .
, .. , :
→ → →
→ → →
→ → →
: .
- . ( ), ( ), . : Zn(OH)2 + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 + 2H2O
ZnO + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 + H2O
Zn(OH)2 ZnO, , . :
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH = Na2Zn02 + 2H2O
(H2Zn02)
ZnO + 2NaOH = Na2Zn02 + H2O
Zn(OH)2 ZnO .
()2, 1()3, Zn(OH)2, Sn(OH)2, Pb(OH)2, d - .
. : ( ), .
( ) : H2SO4 + 2NaOH = Na2SO4 + 22.
Na2SO4 , + Na+.
: H2SO4 + NaOH = NaHSO4 + 2.
NaHSO4 ( - ) , HSO4 (), .. H2SO4 Na+. , , . ( ). . : Na2SO4 + H2SO4 = 2NaHSO4.
: Cu(OH)2 + HC1 = ()1 + 2.
(CuOH)Cl (- ) , (CuOH)+ Cu()2 - Cl. , . ( ). . , , :
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113 + 2NaOH = [AI(OH)2] Cl + 2NaCl
1. , (II) .
. ( ) , .
1) (II) b , , .. : b + 2NO3 = Pb(NO3)2 + 2
PbO + SiO2 = PbSiO3
, , Pb2 + .
2) (II) b :
b + 2NaOH = Na2PbO2 + 2
b + Na2O = Na2PbO2
b + 2NaOH + 2 = Na2 [Pb(OH)4]
b , b22- [b()4]2-.
, b , , .
2. , : , (V), , , , .
. 1) : 2 , 25 , NaOH (), H2SO4 , NaHSO4 , ()2 .
2) , , .
2 , : 32 + 225 = 234
2 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2
2 + ()2 = 22 + 2
(22)
25 , :
25 + 2 = 234
25+ 6NaOH = 2Na3PO4 + 32
25 + ()2 = 3(4)2 + 32
NaOH , , :
6NaOH + 25 = 2Na3PO4 + 2
2NaOH + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 22
2NaOH + ()2 = Na2Be2 + 2H2O
(H2Be2)
NaOH + NaHSO4 = Na2SO4 + H2O
()2 ( H2Be2) , , :
H2Be2 + 2 = 22 + 2
H2Be2 + 2NaOH = Na2Be2 + 2H2O
()2 H2Be2:
3()2 + 25 = 3(4)2 + 2
()2 + H2SO4 = BeSO4 + 22
()2 .
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NaHSO4 :
2NaHSO4 + 2 = Na2SO4 + K2SO4 + 2
NaHSO4 + NaOH = Na2SO4 + H2O
, 2 NaOH, .
3. -
.. .
. 1) . , . −− ( ).
2) : , . , , . −−. − ( − ↓− → + + -), , H+ . − ( ↓−− → + + ), , . , , − −, .
3) −− , − −. , .
4) ( ):
+ +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
NaOH Mg(OH)2 1()3 H2Si3 HNO3 H2SO4 14
5) −O − , , Na CI . + NaOH Mg(OH)2 , . Na− Mg−, NaOH Mg(OH)2 . 1 1− − , 1()3 . , − −, H2SiO3, HNO3, H2SO4 lO4 .
1.5.
, . .
, . (U) , : ∆U = U2 U1 (U1 , U2 ).
( ) Q, , A, :
∆U = Q A, (1)
A = P ∆V .
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( = const, ∆V ≠ 0) H = U + PV Q
∆H = H2 H1:
QP = ∆H, (2)
∆H P = const.
, , . , ∆H < 0. , , . , ∆H > 0.
: , .. . , U H , .. (∆U ∆H) .
:
:
∆H0298 = ∑ν ∆H0f, 298 ∑ν′ ∆H0f, 298, (3)
( (
) )
ν ν′ - ;
∆H0f,298 , /.
(∆H0f,298) ( = 298, = 1 .). ∆H0f, 298 (. . 2). ∆H0f, 298 = 0.
, , .. , , , (, , ).
S. , . S , U H, . (∆S =S2 S1) :
∆S0298 = ∑ν ∙S0 298 - ∑ν′ ∙ S0 298 , (4)
∆S0298 , /;
ν ν′ ;
S0 298 , /∙.
, (. . 2).
, , (- ) G:
G = H T∙S. -
∆G = ∆H T×∆S (5)
∆G ,= const: ∆G ≤ 0.
∆G < 0, ( G2 < G1); ∆G > 0, (G2 > G1); ∆G = 0, , G = Gmin. G , ∆ G0298 :
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∆ G0298 = ∑ν ∙ ∆G0f, 298 ∑ν′ ∆G0f, 298 , (6)
ν ν′ - ;
∆G0f, 298 , /.
(∆G0f, 298) . ∆G0f,298 , ∆G0f, 298 = 0 (. . 2). ∆ G , ( ≠ 298), :
∆G = ∆H0298 T×∆S0298, (7)
∆H0298 , ; ∆S0298 ; T∆S0298 .
∆ G, , , .
1. (III) (III), :
2 Fe() + O2 () = 2FeO(), ∆H01 = - 527,4 ()
4FeO() + O2() = 2Fe2O3(), ∆H02 = -587,9 ()
. 1) (III) :
4 Fe () + 3O2() = 2Fe2O3(), ∆H03 =?, ()
∆H03 .
2) ∆H03 () (), (). , . () 2, (): 4Fe + 2O2 + 4FeO + O2 = 4FeO + 2Fe2O3
4Fe + 3O2 = 2 Fe2O3
3) , :
2∙∆H01 + ∆H02 = ∆H03
4) ∆H03 ():
∆H03 = 2×(527,4) + (587,9) = 1054,8 587,9 = 1642,7 .
5) Fe2O3 (∆H0f, 298).
() 2 Fe2O3 ,
∆H0f, 298 (Fe2O3) = ∆H03 /2 = 1642,7 / 2 = 821,35 /.
, . 2.
2. (III) 298 1500.
. 1) : Cr2O3 () +3C() = 2Cr() + 3CO()
2) : ? , ∆ G < 0. ∆ G.
3) , =298, . ∆ G (6), :
∆ G0298 = (2×∆G0f, 298Cr + 3×∆G0f, 298 CO) (∆G0f, 298 Cr2O3 + 3×∆G0f, 298C)
∆G0f, 298 .2
∆G0f, 298 Cr , :
∆ G0298 = 3 ×(-137,3 /) 1 ×(-1046,8 /)=
= -411,9 + 1046,8 = 634,9 .
: ∆ G0298 > 0, , .. 298 Cr2O3 Cr.
4) , 1500. , , ∆ G0 (7):
∆ G = ∆H0298 T×∆S0298. , (3) ×∆H0f, 298 .2.
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∆H0298 = (2×∆H0f, 298 Cr + 3×∆H0f, 298 CO) (∆H0f, 298 Cr2O3 + 3∙∆H0f, 298 ).
∆H0f, 298 Cr = 0 ∆H0f, 298 = 0,
∆H0298 = 3∙∆H0f, 298 CO ∆H0f, 298 Cr2O3,
∆H0298 = 3 ×(110,5 /) 1 ∙(1141,0 /) =
= −331,5 + 1141,0 = 809,5 , ∆H0298 > 0, .
. (4) S0 298 .2.
∆S0298 = (2×S0 298 Cr + 3×S0 298 CO) (S0 298 Cr2O3 + 3×S0 298 ),
∆S0298 = (2 ×23,8 /∙ + 3 ×197,4 /∙) (1
×81,1 /∙ + 3 ×5,7 /∙) = 639,8 98,2 = 541,6 /.
∆S0298 > 0, . . .
= 1500, .. ∆ G1500: ∆ G1500 = ∆H0298 1500×∆S0298,
∆ G1500 = 809,5 1500×541,6 / = 809,5 1500×541,6 .
, , 1 = 1∙10-3
∆ G1500 = 809,5 1500×541,6/1000 = 809,5 812,4 = 2,9 .
: ∆ G1500 < 0, 1500 , .
2
:
∆H0f, 298 /, S0 298 /∙, ∆G0f, 298 /.
∆H0f 298 | S0 298 | ∆G0f, 298 | ∆H0f, 298 | S0 298 | ∆G0f, 298 | ||
Al () | +23,3 | HCl() | -92,3 | +187,6 | -95,3 | ||
Al2O3() | -1677,0 | +50,9 | -1576,4 | H2S() | -20,2 | +205,6 | -33,0 |
Al2(SO4)3() | -3434,0 | +239,2 | -3091,9 | H2Se() | +86,0 | +221,0 | +71,0 |
C() | +5,7 | H2Te() | +154,0 | +234,0 | +138,0 | ||
CO() | -110,5 | +197,4 | -137,3 | Mg() | +32,0 | ||
CO2() | -393,0 | +214,0 | -394,0 | MgO() | -601,2 | +26,9 | -569,6 |
Cl2() | +223,0 | MgCO3() | -1096 | +65,7 | -1029 | ||
CaO() | -635,1 | +29,7 | -604,2 | MgCl2() | -645,0 | +90,0 | -595,0 |
Ca(OH)2() | -966,2 | +83,4 | -896,8 | N2() | +191,5 | ||
CaCO3() | -1206,0 | +92,3 | -1128,8 | NH3() | -46,2 | +192,5 | -16,6 |
Cr() | +23,8 | NO() | +90,4 | +210,6 | +86,7 | ||
Cr2O3() | -1141,0 | +81,1 | -1046,8 | NO2() | +33,9 | +240,5 | +51,8 |
Cu() | +33,0 | NH4l() | -315,4 | +94,5 | -343,6 | ||
CuO() | -156,0 | +43,0 | -127,0 | O2() | +205,0 | ||
Fe() | +27,2 | SO2() | -296,9 | +248,1 | -300,4 | ||
Fe2O3() | -821,3 | +90,0 | -741,0 | SO3() | -395,2 | +256,2 | -370,4 |
H2() | +130,6 | S() | +31,9 | ||||
H2O() | -241,8 | +188,7 | -228,8 | Ti() | +31,0 | ||
H2O() | -285,8 | +70,0 | -237,5 | TiCl4() | -759,0 | +353,1 | -714,0 |