(E.g. She asked me a question, then another).
Detaching pronouns can be used as subject, object, adverbial modifier and attribute.
Universal Pronouns
Indicate all objects (persons and non-persons) as one whole or any representative of the group separately. They are: all, both, each, every, everything, everybody, everyone, either.
Of these only everybody and everyone have the category of case (everybody - everybody's, everyone – everyone’s), others have no grammatical categories.
These pronouns, as can be seen from the definition, differ in their reference.
Some universal pronouns (all, everybody) have always collective or all-embracing reference. They correspond to the Russian все, весь, целый, всё as in: (E.g. All were present. Все присутствовали. All night long she sat by the window. Всю ночь напролет она просидела у окна. I haven’t read all the book. Я не прочел всей книги. Everything looks so beautiful in spring. Все так красиво весной. She is everything to me. Она для меня всё).
Two pronouns (both, either) indicate a group comprising two persons or non-persons treated either as a whole (both) or as consisting of individual objects in a group of two (either - каждый из двух). In accordance with their reference both takes a predicate-verb in the plural and either - in the singular. The article is usually placed after both.
| Both have come in time. Both the windows were shut. Either of these will do. | -Оба пришли вовремя. -Оба окна были закрыты. - Любой из них подойдет. |
Some pronouns (every, each, either) always have individual reference (каждый, другой), therefore they agree with the predicate-verb in the singular.
(E.g.She searched every corner, but found nothing. Each of them keeps silent).
Two pronouns (everybody, everyone) may have both collective and individual reference. In the first case it corresponds to the Russian все, in the second case to the Russian каждый. This or that reference is generally marked not so much by the predicate-verb, as by correlation with personal or possessive pronouns.
(E.g. Everybody did as he thought best. Everybody was eager to give his evidence. Tell everybody that they are to wait a bit.
Everybody lowered their eyes. The women stood by the gates and everyone told her own story).
Interrogative Pronouns
Indicate persons or non-persons or tlieir properties as unknown to the speaker and requiring to be named in the answer. Accordingly they are used to form special (or pronominal) questions.
This subclass of pronouns comprises who, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever. Of these only the pronoun who has the category of case — the objective case is whom. However there is a strong tendency in colloquial English to use who instead of whom, especially with prepositions.
(E.g.Who did you get it from? Who have you been with? Who do you mean?)
Who, whose, whoever have personal reference, what, whatever have non-personal reference, and which may have both personal and non-personal reference.
The number of the persons implied by who can be derived from the context. Accordingly the predicate-verb may be in the singular or in the plural.
(E.g. Who has come? It’s my brother.
Who are to come today?)
When who is used as predicative, the link verb naturally agrees with the subject:
(E.g.Who is she? Who are you? Who were those people?)
The pronouns what may be both a noun-pronoun (что?) and an adjective-pronoun (каков? какой?). It has mostly a non-personal reference, as in: (E.g. What has happened? What is his name? What did you say? What are you looking at? What book are you reading?)
When what is used as subject it is, unlike who, always used with the predicate verb in the singular.
(E.g. What is there on the table? - Some books and papers).
However when what is used as a predicative the link verb agrees with the subject. (E.g. What are their names?)
What and who can both be used as predicatives in questions concerning persons. In this case they convey different meanings. Who-questions inquire about the person's name or parentage, while what-questions inquire about person’s occupation, profession, rank, etc. (E.g. “Who are you?” — “I am your sister’s son.” “Who is he?” – “He is Mr. Smith.” “What is she?”- “She is a painter”.)
Which is both a noun-pronoun and an adjective-pronoun. It may have either personal or non-personal reference. (E.g. Which of these men is your husband? Which colour do you prefer?)
Which always implies a choice among a certain limited group of persons or things, corresponding to the Russian который, какой из. The same meaning may be rendered by what, but what has always indefinite reference, whereas which has definite reference. Thus the following two questions. (E.g. Which books would you like to buy? What books would you like to buy?) differ in meaning, as the first implies that one is to choose from a given number of books and that one knows what kind of books they are. When answering this question one may either specify the books or just point to them saying “these”. The second sentence implies that one is to choose from an indefinite number of books, from books in general. This sentence corresponds to the Russian Какие книги Вы хотели бы купить? When answering this question, one simply has to specify them.
The pronouns whoever, whatever, whichever are noun-pronouns. Whoever has personal reference, whatever has non-personal reference, whichever may have either personal or non-personal one. When used in questions they express indignation or surprise.
(E.g. Whoever could have done it? Whichever was it? Whatever are you trying to do? Whatever is he talking about?)
Conjunctive Pronouns
Whom, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever are identical with the interrogative pronouns as to their morphological, referential and syntactical characteristics. They refer to persons and non-persons. The difference between the two subclasses lies in that the conjunctive pronouns, along with their syntactical function in the clause, connect subordinate clauses to the main clause. They are used to connect subject, predicative, and some adverbial clauses, or rather to indicate the subordinate status of these clauses, as the sentence may begin with the clause they introduce. (E.g. Who did it will repent. (who opens the subject clause). I know who did it. (who opens the object clause) They were what you call model girls. (what opens the predicative clause))
Whatever you may do you can’t save the situation. (whatever opens the adverbial concessive clause)
Conjunctive pronouns always combine two functions - notional and structural. They are notional words because they function as parts of the sentence within a clause and they are structural words because they serve as connectors or markers of the subordinate clause.
The compounds whoever, whatever, and whichever introduce subject and adverbial clauses and have a concessive meaning: (E.g. Whoever told you this may be mistaken. Whichever you choose, I’ll help you. Whatever may be the consequences, I insist on going on).
Relative Pronouns
Refer to persons and non-persons and open attributive clauses which modify words denoting these persons or non-persons. They are who, whose, which, that. Who, like its homonyms, has the category of case (who-whom), the others have no categories.
Relative pronouns, like conjunctive pronouns, have two functions - notional and structural: they are parts of the sentence and connectors between the main clause and the subordinate attributive clause they are used in. But unlike conjunctive pronouns they are always related (hence their name relative) to some noun or pronoun in the main clause. Compare the following sentences:
| Who he was is still a mystery(conjunctive pronoun) I don’t knowwhich of the books is better. | That is the manwho has saved your child (relative pronoun) Here is the bookwhich the lecturer recommended. |
Conjunctive and relative pronouns do not coincide referentially: the conjunctive pronouns who and whose have only personal reference; the relative pronoun who has personal reference, but whose has dual reference (personal and non-personal); the conjunctive pronoun which has dual reference, whereas the relative which has only non-personal reference.
(E.g. The man who stood at the gate was Jim.
Then the man whose face I still could not see began singing.
The village whose roofs were seen in the distance was N.
I picked up the letter which was on the window sill).
Relative pronouns may function in the subordinate attributive clause as subject, object, attribute, and adverbial modifier (with prepositions).
| Types of pronouns | The list of pronouns |
| Personal pronouns | The common case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. The objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them. |
| Possessive pronouns | Conjoint forms: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Absolute forms: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. |
| Reflexive pronouns | myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. |
| Demonstrative pronouns | this, that, these, those, such, same. |
| Indefinite pronouns | some, something, somebody, someone; any, anything, anybody, anyone. |
| Negative pronouns | no, nothing, nobody, no one, none, neither. |
| Universal pronouns | all, each, both, either, every, everything, everybody, everyone. |
| Detaching pronouns | other, another. |
| Reciprocal pronouns | each other, one another. |
| Interrogative pronouns | who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever. |
| Conjunctive pronouns | who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever. |
| Relative pronouns | who, whose, which, that. |
Chapter V. The Numeral
The Definition
The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of thing in succession.
In accordance with this distinction the numerals fall into two groups: cardinal numerals (cardinals) and ordinal numerals (ordinals).
| Cardinals | Ordinals |
| 0 nought, zero 1 one 2 two 3 three 4 four 5 five 6 six 7 seven 8 eight 9 nine 10 ten 11 eleven 12 twelve 13 thirteen 14 fourteen 15 fifteen 16 sixteen 17 seventeen 18 eighteen 19 nineteen 20 twenty 21 twenty-one, etc. 30 thirty 40 forty 50 fifty 60 sixty 70 seventy 80 eighty 90 ninety 100 one (a) hundred 101 one (a) hundred and one, etc. 1,000 one (a) thousand 1,001 one (a) thousand and one, etc. 100,000 one hundred thousand 1.00.0 one million 1.000.001 one million and one, etc. | 1st first 2nd second 3rd third 4th fourth 5th fifth 6th sixth 7th seventh 8th eighth 9th ninth 10th tenth 11th eleventh 12th twelfth 13th thirteenth 14th fourteenth 15th fifteenth 16th sixteenth 17th seventeenth 18th eighteenth 19th nineteenth 20th twentieth 21st twenty-first, etc. 30th thirtieth 40th fortieth 50th fiftieth 60th sixtieth 70th seventieth 80th eightieth 90th ninetieth 100th (one) hundredth 101st (one) hundred and first, etc. 1,000th (one) thousandth 1,001st one thousand and first, etc. 100,000th (one) hundred thousandth 1,000,000th (one) millionth 1,000,001st (one) million and first, etc. |
.
The Cardinals
Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words.
The cardinals from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those from thirteen to nineteen are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -teen; the cardinals denoting fens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -ty.
Note:
Mind the difference in the spelling of the stem in three and thirteen (thirty), four and forty, five and
fifteen (fifty).
The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those over hundred are compounds.
In cardinals consisting of tens and units the two words are hyphenated:
| 21 - twenty-one, | 35 - thirty-five, | 72 - seventy-two, etc. |
In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are joined to those denoting hundreds, thousands, by means of the conjunction and:
103 - one hundred and three,
225 - two hundred and twenty-five,
3038 - three thousand and thirty-eight,
9651 - nine thousand six hundred and fifty-one.
Note:
If not part of a composite numeral the words hundred, thousand and million in the singular are always used with the indefinite article; a hundred pages, a thousand ways; in composite numerals both a and one are possible, but one is less common; a (one) hundred and fifty pages.
The words for common fractions are also composite. They are formed from cardinals denoting the numerator and substantivized ordinals denoting the denominator. If the numerator is a numeral higher than one, the ordinal in the denominator takes the plural form. The numerator and denominator may be joined by means of a hyphen or without it:
1/3 - one-third (one third),
2/7 - two-sevenths (two sevenths), etc.
In mixed numbers the numerals denoting fractions are joined to the numerals denoting integers (whole numbers) by means of the conjunction and:
3 1/5 - three and one-fifth,
20 3/8 - twenty and three-eighths.
In decimal fractions the numerals denoting fractions are joined to those denoting whole numbers by means of the words point or decimal:
0.5 - zero point (decimal) five,
2.3 - two point (decimal) three,
0, 5 - zero decimal five,
0,005 - zero decimal zero zero five.
The ordinals
Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and compound words.
The simple ordinals are first, second and third.
The derivative ordinals are derived from the simple and derivative cardinals by means of the suffix -th:
- four-fourth, ten-tenth, sixteen-sixteenth, twenty-twentieth, etc.
Before the suffix -th the final у is replaced by ie:
- thirty - thirtieth, etc.
Mind the difference in the spelling of the stems in the following cardinals and ordinals:
- five-fifth, nine-ninth.
The compound ordinals are formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the last component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal:
- twenty-first, forty-second, sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.
