History of computers
[1] Let us take a look at the history of the computers that we know today. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man's hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens. Then the abacuswas invented, a bead frame in which the beads are moved form left to right. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.
[2] During the 17th and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is how the modern slide ruleworks. Henry Briggs used Napier's ideas to produce logarithm tablewhich all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by both Sir Isaac Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician.
[3] The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as a result of several people's experiments. This type of machine, which saves a great deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes, depends on a series often-toothed gear wheels. In 1830 Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine that was called "The Analytical Engine". This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building todays computers.
[4] In 1930, the first analogcomputer was invented by an American named Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns. Mark I, the name given to the first digitalcomputer, was completed in 1944. The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems, all at a very fast rate. In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsylvania built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC. Another important advancement in computers came in 1947, when John von Newmann developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computer's memory.
[5] The first generation of computers, which used vacuum tubes, came out in 1950. Univac I is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In 1960, the second generation of computers was developed and these could perform work ten times faster than their predecessors. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistorsinstead of vacuum tubes. Second-generation computers were smaller, faster and more dependable than first-generation computers. The third-generation computers appeared on the market in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation computers. Unlike second-generation computers, these are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable. Fourth-generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuit fare much smaller than before; as many as 1000 tiny circuits now fit onto a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth-generation computers are 50 times faster than third-generation computers and can complete approximately 1,000,000 instructions per second.
|
|
|
[6] At the rate computer technology is growing, today's computers might be obsolete by 2015 and most certainly by 2030. It has been said that if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology, a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today would take a few seconds.
X. Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why do you think so?
1. Computers as we know them today have gone through many changes.
2. Today's computers probably won't be around for long.
3. Computers have had a very short history.
XII. Say "True" or "False". If "False, correct the sentence. Rely on the information from the text.
1. The abacus and the fingers are two calculating devices still in use today.
2. The slide rule was invented hundreds of years ago.
3. During the early 1880s many people worked on inventing a mechanical calculating machine.
4. Charles Babbage, an Englishman, could well be called the father of computers.
5. The first computer was invented and built in USA.
6. Instructions used by computers have always been kept inside the computer's memory.
7. Using transistors instead of vacuum tubes did nothing to increase the speed at which calculations were done.
8. As computers evolved their size decreased and their dependability increased.
9. Today's computers have more circuits than previous computers.
10. Computer technology has developed to a point from which new developments in the field will take a long time to come.
XIII. Match the words in column A with the statement in column B.
A
1. abacus
2. calculus
3. analog computer
4. digital computer
5. vacuum tubes
6. transistors
7. chip
8. microminiaturization
9. slide rule
10. logarithm table
B
a. instrument used for doing multiplication and division
b. used in the first digital computers
an instrument used for counting
d. used in mathematics
e. circuitry of fourth-generation computers
f. invented by Americans in 1944
g. made computers smaller and faster
h. used to help aim guns
i. the reduction of circuitry
j. a branch of mathematics
XIV. Complete the following table.
| TIME | EVENT |
| Primitive times | |
| Abacus invented | |
| 17th &18th centuries | |
| Henry Brigges produced logarithm table | |
| Charles Babbage designed | |
| First use of in | |
| Second-generation computers using | |
| Now | |
| Future |
|
|
|
UNIT 2 Charateristics
I. Read and guess the meaning of the following international words:
Characteristic, electronic, function, concept, schematically, fundamental, component, peripheral, disk, limit, personnel, compact, portable, internal, manipulation, aspect, period, extremely.
II. Translate the following word combinations:
Manipulating the information, adding information, making comparison, electronic devices, storing data, complex circuits, internal operations, basic concepts, to show schematically, fundamental components, internal memory, peripheral devices, secondary memory, extremely large, routine task, creative work.
III. Memorize the following "False friends".
1. actual - 1) , , ;
2) ,
2. complex -1. 1) , ;
2) , .
3. basic-1) ;
2) ;
3) ( )
4. figure I. 1) , ;
2) , ,
II.
IV. Phrases with prepositions for you to remember:
1. to make up - ,
2. to be capable of.- ,
3. to have smth in common - -
4. to be at work or at play -
5. to respond to - ,
6. to think of-
7. to be attached to - ,
8. irrespective of ,
V. Define the function of Participle I in the following sentences and translate them:
1. Having improved this device they could use it for many purposes. 2. When making the experiment he made notes. 3. The vibrations of a voice speaking into the microphone of a telephone cause vibrations in an electric current. 4. This varying current is carried along a wire to a receiver. 5. Electronics in our country has developed into hundreds of research institutes and laboratories employing tens of thousands of people. 6. Our power engineering develops much faster than that of the other developed countries, including the USA. 7. Having been discovered many years ago this metal found a wide application in industry only last year. 8. While being checked the motor showed good performance. 9. The man introducing this famous scientist is the dean of our faculty. 10. Cybernetics is gaining a growing importance.
VI. Change the complex sentences given below according to the examples and translate them into Russian:
Example A: While she was preparing for her physics exam she looked through all the notes of the lectures.
While preparing for her physics exam she looked through all the notes of the lectures.
1. When he was translating the article he used a dictionary. 2. While the student was working at the problem he made many experiments.3. When the scientist was carrying out research in the field of nuclear physics he came to Dubna to work there. 4. When the worker was applying the new method of work he got better results. 5. While he was experimenting with this substance he was very careful. 6. When the engineer was improving the design he made many calculations. 7. While the man was describing this phenomenon he illustrated it with numerous examples. 8. When these scientists were working in our laboratory they obtained good results.
Example B: The scientists who are carrying out research into nuclear physics deal with most difficult problems.
The scientists carrying out research into nuclear physics deal with most difficult problems.
1. The scientist who is working at the method is well known. 2. The students who are listening to the taped lesson study at the evening faculty. 3. These postgraduate students who are watching the experiment work in our laboratory. 4. The worker who is repairing the machine is very skilled. 5. The engineer who is carrying out these investigations is a well-known inventor. 6. The students who are doing the laboratory work are from various faculties. 7. The workers who are building this house will soon finish their work.
|
|
|
VII. Choose the sentences with Participle I from the ones given below, translate them:
1. The falling water has kinetic energy. 2. While testing the motor we put down the results. 3. There is no simple explanation of the functioning of transistors. 4. Obtaining new data engineers can improve their knowledge. 5. Look at the reading of the device. 6. Robots are helping research scientists to answer many difficult questions. 7. By the beginning of the 20th century man had learned something of the structure of the atom. 8. When applying these automatic devices we shall be able to control automatic lines. 9. The applying of lasers enables us to amplify electromagnetic waves. 10. A person beginning some experiment should be very careful and attentive.
VIII. Find -ing Forms in passage I and define their functions. What is the meaning of the word "whether" in passage 2? X. Read and translate the text.
Characteristics
[1] Computers are machines designed to process, electronically, specially prepared pieces of information which are termed data. Handling or manipulating the information that has been given to computer, in such ways as doing calculations, adding information or making comparisons is called processing. Computers are made up of millions electronic devices capable of storing data or moving them, at enormous speed, through complex circuits with different functions.
[2] All computers have several characteristics in common, regardless of make or design. Information, in the form of instructions and data, is given to the machine, after which the machine action it, a result is then returned. The information presented to the machine is the input; the internal manipulative operations, the processing; and the result, the output. These three basic concepts of input, processing, and output occur in almost every aspect of human life whether at work or at play. For example, in clothing manufacturing, the input is the pieces of cut cloth; the processing is the sewing together of these pieces, and the output is the finished garment.
INPUT COMPUTER OUTPUT
MASS STORAGE
[3] Figure shows schematically the fundamental hardware components in a computer system. The centerpiece is called either the computer, the processor, or, usually, the central processing unit (CPU). The term 'computer' includes those parts of hardwarein which calculations and other data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed internal memory in which data and calculations are stored during actual execution of programs. Attached to the CPU are the various peripheral devicessuch as card readers and keyboards(two common examples of input devices). When data or programs need to be saved for long periods of time, they are stored on various secondary memorydevices or storage devicessuch as floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, flash memory and so on..
[4] Computers have often been thought of as extremely large adding machines, but this is a very narrow view of their function. Although a computer can only respond to a certain number of instructions, it is not a single-purposemachine since these instructions can be combined in an infinite number of sequences. Therefore, a computer has no known limit on the kinds of things it can do; its versatility is limited only by the imagination of those using it.
|
|
|
[5] In the late 1950s and early 1960s when electronic computers of the kind in use today were being developed, they were very expensive to own and run. Moreover, their size and reliability were such that a large number of support personnel were needed to keep the equipment operating. This has all changed now that computing power has become portable, more compact and cheaper.
[6] In only a very short period of time, computers have greatly changed the way in which many kinds of work are performed. Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks from our lives, thereby leaving us with more time for interesting, creative work. It goes without saying that computers have created whole new areas of work that did not exist before their development.
IX. Which statement or statements best express the main idea of the text? Why do you think so?
1. Computers have changed the way in which we live.
2. All computers have an input, a processor, an output and a storage device.
3. Computers have decreased man's work load.
4. All computers have the same basic hardware components.
X. Say "True" or "False". If "False" correct the sentence. Rely on the information from the text.
1. All information to be processed must be prepared in such a way that the computer will understand it.
2. Because of the complex electronic circuitry of a computer, data can be either stored or moved about at high speed.
3. Not all computers can process data given to them and produce results.
4. The basic concepts of data processing are restricted to computers alone.
5. The processor is the central component of a computer system.
6. All other devices used in a computer system are attached to the CPU.
7. Memory devices are used for storing information.
8. Computers are very much restricted in what they can do.
9. Computers today cost less, are smaller, and need fewer people to operate them than in the past.
10. Computers haven't changed our working conditions very much.
XI. Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed.
1. All computers are basically the same.
2. Then arithmetic and/or decision-making operations are performed.
3. Computers are limited by man's imagination more then anything else.
4. All the equipment used in a computer system is the hardware.
5. Computers are electronic machines used for processing data.
6. If programs or data need to be kept for a long time, they are stored on disks.
7. First the computer accepts data.
8. Finally, new information is presented to the user.
XII. Complete the following definitions with the appropriate words. Make sure you used the correct form.
processing hardware floppy disk
input processor flash memory
output secondary memory personnel
single-purpose
1. Information... takes place in the... not in the... device or... device.
2. The... refers to all the electromechanical devices used in a computer installation.
3.... and... units are used as... storage devices.
4. A computer isn't usually a... machine and may require quite specialized... to operate it and all its related equipment.
XIII. Summarize the text on "Characteristics " by completing the following table.
| System | Components | Parts |
| Hardware | 1. | |
| 2. Control Unit | ||
| 3. | ||
| Peripheral devices | 1. | |
| A. | 2. Disks | |
| B. | 3. | |
| 4. | ||
| 5. | ||
| 6. |
Unit 3 Hardware and software
I. Read and guess the meaning of the following international words:
Systems, mixture, effect, integrate, discuss, physical, electronic, electromechanical, program, control, coordinate, activity, direct, diagrammatically, component, processor, manipulation, peripheral, category, product, specific, select, original, monstrosity
II. Translate the following word combinations:
To use effectively, integrated parts, a useful whole, electromechanical device, to coordinate the activities, to show diagrammatically, joined together, to perform manipulations, actual execution, various devices, broad categories, system supplier, computer product, a specific need, turnkey systems, hardware and software components, a poorly chosen system.
III. Memorize the following "false friend":
1. execution - 1) ;
2) ,
3)
IV. Phrases with prepositions for you to remember:
1. to divide into -
2. along with - ,
V. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of Participle II:
|
|
|
1. The discovery mentioned remained unknown to most scientists for a long time. 2. The equipment tested required further improvement. 3. When passed through a motor, electric current can do work. 4. The students have conducted all the experiments. 5. These instruments recorded the cosmic rays and the information obtained was sent back by the radar to the ground. 6. When heated, a magnet loses some of its magnetism. 7. The results received changed with material used. 8. Unless repaired, this part cannot be used in the radio set. 9. The substances investigated showed quite interesting properties. 10. When developed, the device was used for amplification of radio signals. 11. The developed technology enables us to improve the quality of articles produced. 12. The first laser was developed in 1960. 13. The methods introduced received general recognition. 14. If frozen, water becomes ice. 15. The device used in our work is up-to-date. 16. The apparatus tested is looked upon as an experimental one. 17. When required, these data will be applied in our practical work. 18. The investigation analyzed resulted in an interesting discovery.
VI. Define the functions of Participle II in passage 4.
VII. Read and translate the text.
Hardware and software
[1] In order to use computers effectively to solve problems in our environment, computersystems are devised. A "system" implies a good mixture of integrated parts working together to form a useful whole. Computer system may be discussed in two parts.
[2] The first part is hardware- the physical, electronic, and electromechanical devices that are thought of and recognized as "computers". The second part is software- the programs that control and coordinate the activities of the computer hardware and that direct the processing of data.
[3] The basic components of computer hardware are joined together in a computer system. The centerpiece is called the computer, the processor, or usually the central processing unit (CPU). The term "computer" usually refers to those parts of the hardware in which calculations and other data manipulations are performed, and to the internal memory in which data and instructions are stored during the actual execution of programs. The various peripherals whichinclude inputand/or outputdevices, various secondary memorydevices, and so on, are attached to the CPU.
[4] Computer software can be divided into two very broad categories - system softwareand applications software. The former is often simply referred to as "systems". These, when brought into internal memory, direct the computer to perform tasks. The latter may be provided along with the hardware by a systems supplier as part of a computer product designed to answer a specific need in certain areas. These complete hardware/software products are called turnkey systems.
[5] The success or failure of any computer system depends on the skill with which the hardware and software components are selected and blended. A poorly chosen system can be a monstrosity incapable of performing the tasks for which it was originally acquired.
VIII. Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why do you think so?
1. Only hardware is necessary to make up a computer system.
2. Software alone doesn't constitute a computer system.
3. A computer system needs both hardware and software to be complete.
IX. Indicate whether the following ideas are stated or not stated in the text.
1. A system implies a good mixture of parts working together.
2. Input and output devices operate more slowly than the decision - making devices.
3. The control unit and the arithmetic-logical unit are part of the processor.
4. The "computer" is the hardware.
5. Software is the programs on disks.
6. The processor is usually referred to as the CPU.
7. The word "computer" means the processor and the internal memory.
8. System software is usually referred to as programs.
9. Complete hardware/software products are called turnkey systems.
10. Computers process specially prepared items of information.
X. Match the words in column A with the words or statements in column B.
A
1. hardware
2. software
3. processor
4. peripheral
5. system software
6. applications software
7. turnkey systems
8. computer systems
a. the computer
b. input/output and secondary memory devices
short for central processing unit
d. physical electronic and electromechanical devices
e. hardware plus software
f. hardware/software packages
g. used for a specific job to direct the computer
h. the programs
XI. Use the following words to complete the paragraph.
Central processing unit, applications software, peripheral devices, systems software, mass memory, hardware, input/output, software.
A computer system consists of two components:... and.... Each component is subdivided into different parts. The Central Processing Unit and the... constitute the... component. Systems software and...comprise the... component. Devices that are used for mass storage are considered part of the... component. These devices along with Input and Output devices are referred to as... devices.
Unit 4 Main hardware
I. Read and guess the meaning of the following international words:
Practice, coordinate, activity, result, functional, arithmetic-logical, command, function, portion, direction, manual, multiplication
II. Translate the following word combinations:
Common practice, basic instructions, to coordinate the activities, digital computer, functional unit, control unit, arithmetic-logic unit, electronic circuit, coordinating control signals, step-by-step operations, logical operations, special purpose, piece of equipment
III. Memorize the following "false friends ":
1. division - 1) ; ;
2) , , ;
3) , ;
4) , ;
5)
2. direction - 1) ;
2) , ;
3) , ;
4) pl. ;
5) ,
3. storage - 1) (), ;
2) ;
3) , ;
4)
IV. Phrases with prepositions for you to remember:
1. to make up - 1) , ;
2) , , , ;
3) ;
4) , ;
5)
2. to select from - ,
3. to start up. - 1) ;
2) , ( ); start up -
4. on the one hand..., on the other (hand)... - ..., ...
V. Define the functions of the Gerund in the following sentences and translate them:
1. A laser is a machine for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam. 2. Go on making the experiment. 3. The idea of using lasers came from A.Prokhorov and N.Basov. 4. The laser beam is made by exciting the atoms of a suitable material. 5. Measuring temperature is necessary in many experiments. 6. There can be no progress in science without experimenting. 7. Solving such problems helps us greatly. 8. Their wish is mastering the fundamentals of radio-engineering. 9. The melting point of aluminum is 657C. 10. I remember visiting this laboratory. 11. They succeeded in obtaining these data.
VI. Choose the sentences with the Gerund from the ones given below and translate them:
1. Special instruments measuring cosmic radio signals are being installed in the observatory. 2. Penetrating into space was very important for mankind. 3. Applying the method we get better results. 4. Upon adding heat we can change the state of a substance. 5. When measuring the voltage we use a voltmeter. 6. A number of materials, including some gases and semiconductors, possess this property. 7. For many centuries men were interested in obtaining new sources of energy. 8. The engineer insisted on experimenting as the best method to solve this problem. 9. The importance of scientific researches and discoveries is growing with every year.
VII. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of the Gerund:
1. Large-scale application of electronic technique is a trend of technical progress capable of revolutionizing many branches of industry. 2. St. Petersburg physicists have developed a method for using optical quantum generators for spectral analysis. 3. When atoms or molecules are excited they emit electromagnetic waves. By counting the number of waves in a certain period, a very accurate measure of time can be defined. 4. The operating speeds of these systems will be measured in nano-seconds.5. Telemetry is the science of seeing some place without being there. 6. Electronics is not so much a new subject as a new way of looking at electricity. 7. We know of Kondakov's having made the first synthetic rubber in the world. 8. Russian physicists saw in semiconductors the way of solving complicated engineering problems. 9. These scientists continue working in this promising field of knowledge. 10. We know of Yoffe's having contributed much to the research of transistors.
VIII. Read and translate the text.
